
Class. 
Book. 



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Copyright N?_ 









COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



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By EDWIN C WOOLLEY 



THE MECHANICS OF WRITING 

A Compendium of Rules regarding Manuscript 
Arrangement, Spelling, the Compounding of 
Words, Abbreviations, the Representation of 
Numbers, Syllabication, the Use of Capitals, 
the Use of Italics, Punctuation, and Para- 
graphing, xxxi -f 396 pages. 



HANDBOOK OF COMPOSITION 

A Compendium of Rules regarding Good Eng- 
lish, Grammar, Sentence Structure, Paragraph- 
ing, Manuscript Arrangement, Punctuation, 
Spelling, Essay Writing, and Letter Writing, 
xxi + 239 pages. 



THE MECHANICS OF WRITING 

A COMPENDIUM OF RULES 

REGARDING 

MANUSCRIPT-ARRANGEMENT, SPELLING, THE 
COMPOUNDING OF WORDS, ABBREVIATIONS, 
THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS, SYL- 
LABICATION, THE USE OF CAPITALS, 
THE USE OF ITALICS, PUNCTUATION, 
AND PARAGRAPHING 



BY 
EDWIN C. WOOLLEY, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH 
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



o>*<o 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHEES 

1909 



4 






31 



1 



Copyright, 1909, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 



I CL A 25 1.2.62 






3RJ 



And admonish them that they write after a fair and 
seemly fashion. He that no more than maketh a mark, 
let him not be heedless nor lubbardly therein, but 
rather set down the same with prudence and circum- 
spection ; seeing that the littlest jot of the pen may 
e'en be (as Ulpian saith) matter for weighty adjudi- 
cation. — Falconer, Praecepta Magistrandi. 



PREFACE 

In order to write English in a way that befits an educated 
person, one must know a certain body of rules. The term 
rules is here used in a wide sense, including not only gen- 
eral precepts, such as the dictum that in a sentence " every 
part should be subservient to one principal affirmation," 
but also those numerous particular precepts which refuse 
to merge themselves into convenient generalizations — for 
instance, those to the effect that it is bad English to say 
"I devote my evenings in study" for "I devote my even- 
-ings to study," that the verb except should not be used in 
the sense of accept, nor the noun principle in the sense 
of the adjective principal, and that all right should be 
written as two words, the first spelled with two Vs. When 
I say that one must know these rules, I mean that one must 
not merely be acquainted with them, but habitually observe 
them. 

Some of these rules are known and followed by nearly 
every person who has grown up in an English-speaking com- 
munity. Nearly every such person knows, for example, the 
correct meaning of several hundred English words (that is to 
say, he knows several hundred rules directing how these words 
should be used) ; knows how to spell certain words, fewer 
than those which he knows how to use ; and knows that the 
pronoun /and such nouns as John, Mary, Smith, and Jones 
should be capitalized. But ignorance of many other rules — 
which might easily be enumerated if there were any need — is 
shared by children in the grammar school, boys and girls in 
high school, high-school graduates of recent and of long 
standing, college freshmen, college seniors, bachelors and 
masters of arts, and members of the learned professions. 

With this fact in mind, I published in 1907 a little book 
called a Handbook of Composition, the purpose of which 
was to present the rules that, so far as I had observed, were 
unknown to any considerable number of the class of people 

v 



vi PREFACE 

mentioned above. Since that time my attention has been 
drawn to other deficiencies of the same sort as those treated 
in the Handbook. Some of these are matters of good Eng- 
lish (technically so called), phraseology, sentence-structure, 
reference, and the structure of compositions ; others con- 
cern the mechanical processes involved in writing — that 
is, manuscript-arrangement, spelling, the compounding of 
words, the use of abbreviations, the representation of num- 
bers, syllabication, capitalization, italicizing, punctuation, 
and paragraphing. The rules necessary for correcting these 
mechanical deficiencies I have formulated in this book ; and 
along with them I have incorporated most of the rules of 
the Handbook that concern the same subjects, altering them 
as there seemed to be occasion, and illustrating them more 
fully. 

I have said that in order to write as befits an educated 
person, one must not only be acquainted with certain rules 
but also observe them habitually. Learning to write well, 
then, is more than being informed of these rules ; it is 
getting the rules fixed in one's habitual practice. To assist 
the student in this latter part of the work is the object of 
the exercises in the present book. Some of these are little 
more than manual exercises ; but such, I think, are just 
what in many cases students of writing need. Many people 
who write "to hot" and "finaly" and "alright" are 
acquainted with the rules which they thereby violate ; it is 
their hands that need discipline. 

I hoped that the Handbook would find a place in the 
service of many who were not studying English in the class- 
room, — who were not students in any school or college, — 
but had writing of some sort to do, and wanted occasional 
help in doing it ; and this hope has been realized, to my 
great pleasure. Likewise I have wished to make the present 
book as helpful as possible to any one who needed the infor- 
mation it should contain, whether he was in a college, a high 
school, an office, or a warehouse. Nevertheless, most of the 
people who may find the book useful will be, as a matter 
of course, students under the direction of teachers. I have 
devised certain apparatus, to facilitate its use by such stu- 
dents, which I wish now to explain. 



1 ^FACE Vil 

The chief benefit derived from theme-writing lies probably 
in the instructor's indication of errors in the themes and his 
showing how these errors are to be corrected ; for by these 
means the student may learn the rules that he is inclined 
to violate, and thus may be helped to eliminate the defects 
from his writing. Hence it is important that the errors 
and the way to correct them be shown to the student as 
completely and clearly as possible. For instance, suppose 
that a theme contains the sentence U I have always chosen 
for my companions people who** I thought had high ideals." 
Suppose the instructor points out the grammatical fault and 
-gives the student information to this effect : " An expression 
such as he says, he thinks, or he hears 'interpolated in a 
relative clause does not affect the case of the subject of the 
clause. For example, ' The man who I thought was my 
friend deceived me ' is correct ; ' who ' is the subject of 
4 was my friend' ; 'I thought' is a parenthesis which does 
not affect the case of ' who.' In your sentence, ' whom ' is 
not the object of 'thought,' but the subject of 'had high 
ideals'; it should therefore be in the nominative case." 
From this information the student is likely to get more than 
the mere knowledge that the "whom" in this particular 
case should be changed to "who"; he is likely to learn 
a principle, the knowledge of which — if he will remem- 
ber it — will keep him from committing similar errors in 
future. 

But the theme from which one sentence is quoted above 
contains fourteen other errors ; and 'the forty-nine other 
themes which the instructor is to hand back to-morrow 
morning contain among them about seven hundred and 
eighty -five more. How shall the instructor, as he indicates 
these eight hundred errors, furnish the information called 
for by each one ? Obviously he must use some kind of 
shorthand. Suppose, then, that he writes opposite the 
incorrect "whom" above quoted the expression "Gr." or 
"b. E." or "case." Do these expressions furnish the student 
with the information he needs regarding that "whom"? 
It seems to me that they do not. They are intended to 
imply all that information, but I doubt whether one student 
out of five hundred ever sees the implication. To be sure, 
four hundred and ninety -six out of five hundred will, possi- 



viii PREFACE 

bly, see that something is wrong with "whom," and will 
change it to "who" or will eliminate it in some other way 
— for instance, by altering the sentence thus : "People who 
seemed to have high aspirations have always been selected 
by me for companions. 11 But they will do this without 
knowing why any change should be made ; and thus the 
correction of the error will fall short of the instructive value 
which it should have, and which it would have if it were 
made intelligently. 

Yet shorthand must be used in correcting themes. Is 
there no system of shorthand which conveys to the student 
the information he should have regarding each error marked 
in his themes ? There is such a system ; it consists of 
references to a book. If the writer of the theme containing 
the erroneous "whom* 1 has a book which explains, in a 
section numbered 33, the grammatical rule that he has 
violated, the instructor can do his duty in the premises 
by writing "33 " opposite the " whom" ; and if the book 
contains likewise a piece of information appropriate to the 
other seven hundred and ninety -nine errors above supposed, 
each piece placed under a reference number, the instructor 
can do his duty in the case of the seven hundred and 
ninety-nine errors by writing a reference number opposite 
each one. The Handbook was designed, and the present 
book has been designed, to be used in this way. 

To illustrate further the use of the present book for refer- 
ence in the correction of themes, suppose a page of a stu- 
dent's theme reads as follows : 

My associates . have usualy 
been choosen with some cons- 
ideration of there morality. Boys, 
who I (thought) beleived posessed 
good principals. 

My fathers buisness made it 
neecesary, for our family to 
move about considerably so 
I have been thrown arnoung 
(the) many differant classes 
of people, (the) easterners, nort- 
herners, westerners and southerners, 



PREFACE IX 

(the) Chinese, germans, and 
french, have all been under 
my observation this enabeles me 
to feel at home every-where and ju- 
dge different kindes of men quick 
-ly and with-out difficulty. 

The errors in this passage can be indicated, and the writer 
can be referred to the information on each point by means 
of the following numbers, which designate sections in this 
book : 

My associates have usualy 70 
101 been choosen with some cons- 173-175 



101 ideration of there morality. Boys, 463,307,336 
46 who I (thought) beleivedposessed 96, 98 
93 good principals. 32, 33 

482 My fathers buisness made it 66 
101 neccesary, for our family to 452 

move about considerably so 279,280,282 
I have been thrown amoung 101 
46 (the) many differant classes 101 
293,294,46,197 of people L (the) easterners, nort- 173,174,178 
197, 328 herners, westerners and southerners, 197 
46 (the) Chinese, germans, and 198 
198 french, have all been under 329 
292, 257, 203 my observation this enabeles me 80 a, b 
129, 180 to feel at home every-where and ju- 
101, 73 dge differant kindes of men quick 
183 -ly and with-out difficulty. 129 

The writer of the passage might also be advised to do, more 
or less at his leisure, the following exercises : 

627, concerning " usualy " 

678, concerning "cons-ideration," " nort-herners," 

" ju-dge," and " quick -ly " 
657, concerning " there " 



X PREFACE 

683, 719, 720, concerning " morality. Boys" 

707, 708, concerning "Boys, who" 

655, concerning u beleive" 

651, concerning "principals" 

739, 742, concerning "fathers" 

622, 623, concerning " buisness " 

689, concerning " considerably so " 

683, 698, 699, concerning "people, (the) easterners" 
680, concerning "Chinese, germans, and trench" 

684, 685, concerning "observation this" 
634, concerning "enabeles" 

629, concerning "kindes" 

672, 675, concerning "every- where " and " with-out " 

The synopsis on pages xvi-xxxi will enable a teacher who 
is fairly familiar with the book to find in a few seconds any 
reference number he desires. Copies of the synopsis printed 
in the form of a chart, by means of which one can find all 
the reference numbers without turning pages, will be fur- 
nished by the publishers to teachers who desire them. 

So much for the book as a whole. Now I wish to speak 
particularly of the system of separative punctuation pre- 
sented in sections 229-481. 

Of the system both the plan and the phraseology were 
determined largely by one dominating purpose : to make an 
instrument that would be effective in combating the comma 
fault and the period fault, those twin vices so common 
and yet so baffling — the despair of teachers. I say 
"twin vices" because it is clear that they spring from 
one fundamental deficiency — failure to recognize the dis- 
tinction between the integral syntactic unit and constituent, 
or subordinate, units. A writer commits the comma fault 
thus: 

" Then I rushed to get my breakfast, it was good but 
I could not linger at it," 

because he does not see that there are in this expression 
two integral syntactic units. He commits the period fault 
thus : 



PREFACE xi 

" My parents were extremely afraid of the river. That 
is to have me near it," 

because he does not see that here there is only one integral 
unit. 

Why is it so hard for people to learn that the period 
belongs only at the end, and the comma only in the interior, 
of an integral syntactic unit? Because they are not so 
instructed. They are instructed that the period belongs 
only at the end, and the comma only in the interior, of a 
sentence. This is the root of the difficulty — our calling the 
integral syntactic unit a sentence. For the integral syntactic 
unit is an independent subject and predicate, or a pair or 
series of such syntactically conjoined. But what is a sen- 
tence ? Most students are taught that it is "the expression 
of a complete thought." Therefore, instructed to use the 
comma only within a sentence, they say "Very well," and 
proceed to write, 

" She found that Gabriel had departed on the preceding 
day, this was very disheartening news," 

feeling that this is a "complete thought," and that there- 
fore the comma is right. Instructed to use the period only 
at the end of a sentence, they write, 

"The author points his moral in a very clear way. In 
a way that any child can understand and yet the 
story is deep," 

feeling that this is two " complete thoughts," and that there- 
fore the period is right. Again, sentence, as the term is 
generally used by writers and teachers, includes expressions 
like these : 

" He is not a Russian ; he is a Pole." 
"I came, I saw, I conquered." 

"Hath a Jew money ? is it possible a cur can lend three 
thousand ducats ? " 

Such expressions are not syntactic units, for the junction 
in them is mechanical or rhetorical, not syntactic. What, 
then, is a sentence ? It is like the wreck of the Flying 
Scud : 4 c Any one can make half a dozen theories for sixty 



xii PREFACE 

or seventy per cent of it ; but when they're made, there's 
always a fathom or two of slack hanging out of the other 
end." At any rate, sentence does not and can not stand, 
to students' minds, clearly and distinctly for the integral 
syntactic unit ; it is not a syntactic, but a rhetorical term. 
But the only sure basis for rules of punctuation is syntax ; 
that is, the only certain rules of punctuation are those that 
say, " Use such and such a mark with such and such a 
syntactic element." If we wish to teach students how to 
recognize the end of an integral syntactic unit, we cannot 
succeed by explaining in terms of sentence. Hence the use 
of the term complete independent predication in the present 
work. 

Certain rules of punctuation in the following pages will, 
I suppose, be hard sayings to some readers. For instance, 
of the rule that a noun in apposition with a noun not ex- 
pressed should be set off by a dash (878), some readers will 
say, "But in literature such appositions are set off by other 
symbols than the dash." 

This is true ; and in framing the rule cited, I have not 
intended to suggest that it is not true. But to tell the 
reader one way of punctuating such an appositive, and not 
to trouble him with a discussion of permissible alterna- 
tives, seemed to accord best both with the needs and with 
the wish of m^st of my readers. The people for whose aid 
and comfort I have written are, in the course of their writ- 
ing, continually asking themselves or somebody else, " How 
should this be punctuated ? What point goes here ? Should 
I put a colon here ? Is it all right to omit this comma ? " 
and they want a short, quick answer. Their thought is 
"Just give me a direction by following which I may be sure 
I am right ; I don't want to know all the ways, but just one 
good way." Such a direction I have tried to give for the 
case in question, and for other cases as far as possible. 

Certain other rules of punctuation stand on a differ- 
ent basis ; these are the prohibitions — the assertions that 
certain things should not be done. For example, there 
are the heavily stressed rules denouncing as an Unpardon- 
able Sin the placing of a comma at the end of a complete 
independent predication (203), or the placing of a period 
before final clauses and phrases (463). These things so 



PREFACE Xlll 

threateningly forbidden are, it will be said, done by every 
good writer of flexibility and spirit. 

This is also true. But still the prohibitions are sound 
doctrine ; teachers should enforce them rigorously on their 
students, and students should enforce them rigorously on 
themselves. If a young person censured for the comma 
fault remonstrates, " Stevenson does it," the obvious answer 
is, of course, "You are not Stevenson." This sounds like 
a flippant evasion, but in reality is eminently (though per- 
haps not sweetly) reasonable and just. For some rules of 
punctuation, like some rules of rhetoric, may be violated 
in various ways — in ways that are ludicrously uncouth, 
and in ways that produce no such effect. This is a point 
that the young remonstrant always forgets. Let us illus- 
trate. A certain rule of rhetoric prohibits dangling parti- 
ciples. This rule is violated in the sentence " Having eaten 
our lunch, the horse quickened his pace"; the effect is 
plainly bad, as even the most indulgent critic will admit. 
But the rule is also violated by Charles Lamb when he 
writes, " Coming into an inn at night — having ordered your 
supper — what can be more delightful than to find lying in 
the window-seat, left there time out of mind by the careless- 
ness of some former guest, two or three numbers of the old 
Town and Country magazine . . . ? " And here the viola- 
tion of the rule has no bad effect. The knowledge of when 
the violation of such a rule will produce a conspicuous fault 
which will catch the attention of a casual reader, and when 
it will seem unexceptionable to a fastidious rhetorician, can 
scarcely be conveyed by rules ; it can be acquired only by 
experience. A literary master possesses this knowledge. 
Through wide observation and long practice and a quick 
sensitiveness to the subtle effects of words in various com- 
binations, he knows intuitively whether an expression that, 
violates a certain rule will produce a bad effect or not ; 
hence his violations are hardly noticeable. But a writer of 
little experience is likely, if he violates certain rules, to pro- 
duce in most cases signal blunders ; these rules it is therefore 
best for him to observe rigorously, until he has acquired the 
power to waive them, as the masters do, without risk of 
offense. And among these rules are the prohibitory rules 
of punctuation referred to above — particularly those regard- 



xiv PREFACE 

ing the comma fault and the period fault. These are not 
laid down with the claim that they cannot be violated 
without incorrectness ; but violation or lax observance of 
them by inexperienced writers means incessant blundering, 
and a slovenliness of style which is abominable in the pres- 
ent, and which can lead to no good in the future ; strict 
observance of them is wholesome discipline conducive to the 
growth of a firm, clean-cut style. 

In the latter part of Professors Scott and Denney's Para- 
graph Writing y the authors make admirable use of some 
illustrative diagrams resembling ladders lying in a horizontal 
position. These figures suggested to me the strategic design 
of assaulting the paragraph by escalade, a design which 
I have tried to execute in Sections 538-583. Professor 
William Dwight Whitney's Essentials of English Gram- 
mar, that most admirable classic, and Professor J. M. D. 
Meiklejohn's ample store of data on English grammar, have 
helped me greatly in some parts of my work. I am very 
much obliged, also, to my colleagues who have given me 
advice and assistance. 

E. C. W. 

Madison, Wisconsin, 
October, 1909. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

For a detailed synopsis, see pages xvi-xxxi. 

PAGE 

Manuscript 1 

Spelling . . 25 

Compound and Derivative Words .... 63 

Abbreviations ........ 76 

The Representation of Numbers .... 84 

Syllabication ........ 90 

Capitals 93 

Italics 101 

Punctuation ........ 104 

ParaCxRaphing . . 7 206 

Exercises ......... 296 

Grammatical Vocabulary 360 

Index to the Rules of Punctuation classified 

by Points 385 

General Index ........ 391 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 

Numbers less than six hundred refer to rules 
Numbers greater than six hundred refer to exercises 

MANUSCKIPT 
Manu- Writing Materials 

script Unruled paper 1 Black ink or typewriter 2 

Only one side of paper to be used 3 
Form of Letters and Symbols 

Letters Koman numbers 
Conspicuous ornament 4 Cross-strokes 

Dots and cross-strokes Where necessary 9 

Omission 5 Where wrong 10 

Placing at random 6 Consecutive stems 11 

Ornamental cross-strokes 7 Use of " IIII " for IV 12 

Quotation marks and apostrophes 8 No period after 13 

Words 

Gaps between letters 14 Oblique and 15 

Lines 

Space between words 16 Space between lines 

Extra space after period etc. 17 In general 19 

Crowding marks of punctuation 18 Bottom of page 20 

Pages 

Page numbers — Arabic, not Roman 21 
Title — space above and below 22 
Margin 

Top 23 Wide at left 24 Neat at right 25 
Paragraphs 
Indention 

General rule 26 ; 601, 753 Numbered paragraphs 29 

Initial quotation marks 27, 601 Irregular indention 30 

Paragraphs of one line 28, 601 Incorrect indention 31 

Partially blank line in midst of paragraph 32 
Partially blank line followed by flush line 33 
Poetry 

Left-over parts of lines Integrity of lines 36, 603-605 

Indention 34, 602 Quoted verse set apart from prose 

Irregular indention 35, 602 context 37, 606 

Extended Quotations of prose — set apart from context 38 
Tabulated Lists 

Indention (hanging) 39 Bet apart from context 40 

Alterations in Manuscript 
Insertion 

Insertions of a few words made with the caret 41 
Misuse of parentheses and brackets 41 
Inversion of the caret 42 Misuse of the asterisk 43 
Insertions run over to following line 44 
Insertions of several lines 45 

xvi 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 



XVll 



Erasure 46 Misuse of parentheses and brackets 46 
Transposition 47 

New paragraph 48 Paragraph sign wrong side before 49 

Canceling paragraph divisions 50 

The Finished Manuscript 

Pages in order 51 a Manuscript not rolled 51 b 



Manu- 
script 



SPELLING 
Effect of Suffixes 

Doubling of final consonants 

General rule 52, GOT 

Before ed and ing 53, 608- . 
613 

Before en 54, 607 

Before er and est 55, 607 

Before ish and y 56, 607 
Picnicked, shellacked, etc. 60, 614 
Dropping of final e 61, 615, 616 
Eetaining of final e 

Courageous etc. 62, 617 
Final y 

Plurals in ies and eys 64, 620 

Verbs in ies and ie'd 65, 621 
' Lying, dying, etc. 67, 624 
Studying etc. 68, 625 

Finally etc. 70, 627 

Heroically etc. 72, 628 

Inflectional Endings 
Plurals 

Common nouns 

Endings ,<? and es 73, 629 

Nouns in a consonant 73 a 
Nouns in ay, aw, etc. 73 b 
Plurals in ves {leaves, shelves, etc.) 74, 630 
Plural of nouns in o 75 
Proper nouns 76 
Present third singulars in s and es 77, 631 

Verbs in a consonant 77 a Verbs in ay, aw, etc. 77 b 



Mistaken applications 
Reference etc. 57 
Benefit etc. 58 
Travel etc. 58 
Fitness etc. 59 



Completely etc. 63, 618, 619 

Happiness, business, necessa- 
rily etc. 66, 622, 623 

Suddenness etc. 69, 626 
Accidentally etc. 71, 628 



Spelling 



Stem Terminations 

Adjectives in fid 78, 632 
Words in el and le 

Enumeration 80 a 
Alley, hockey, etc. 81 

Prefixes 

Always, already, etc. 82, 635 
Describe, despair, destroy, etc. 84 

Similar Words often Confounded 

Accept and except 85. 636 

Advice, devise, etc. 86. 637 

Affect and effect 87, 638 

Already and all ready 88, 639 

Lead and led 89. 64S 

Lose and loose 90, 649 
Accommodate, embarrass, occurrence, etc. 98 
Accent marks on foreign words 99 
Omission of final letters 100 

A List of Words that are often Misspelled 101, 664 



Adjectives in ous 79, 633 
Inflection of verbs in le 80 6, 634 ' 

"Alright" 83, 661 



O and oh 91 Capitalization 92 
Principal and principle 93, 651 
Proceed and precede, etc. 94, 652 

Meaning 95, 653 
Receive, believe, etc. 96, 655 
To, too, two 97, 658, 659 



XV111 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 



Compound 
and 

derivative 
words 



Passer-by etc. 105 
Half-hour etc. 106 

Well-dressed etc., attributive 114 
Well dressed etc., not attributive 

115 
Worn-out etc., attributive 116 
Three-inch, eight-oar, etc., at- 
tributive 117 
Participle preceded by agent 118 



COMPOUND AND DEKIVATIVE WORDS 

General Rule as to hyphened and solid words 103 

Classes of Words to be Hyphened 
Nouns 

The prefix ex 103 

The prefix 'vice 104 
Adjectives 

Hope-like, cup-like, etc. 107 

Childlike, ladylike, etc. 108 

Coal-black etc. 109 

Bright-eyed etc. 110 

Eagle-eyed etc. Ill 

Far-reaching etc. 112 

Closely resembling etc. 113 
Noun, adjective, participle, or gerund preceded by object 119 
Noun or adjective of more than two components 1.20 
Adverbs 
Banjo-fashion etc. 121 
To-day etc. 122 
Good-by 123 
Singly construed phrases 124 

Classes of Words to be Written Solid 

Nouns — childhood, grandfather, etc. 125 

Pronouns — myself, whoever, somebody, etc. 126; 669, 670, 673 

Adjectives —upright, extraordinary, etc. 127 

Verbs — overcome, withstand, etc. 128 

Particles — together, instead, nevertheless, etc. 129, 671, 672 

Incorrect Compounding 
General rule 130 
Sundry expressions not to be compounded — each other, in order, 

some day, etc. 131, 674 * 

Everybody and every one, etc. 132, 673 
Awhile and a while 133, QQ& 
Sometime and some time 134, 667 
Anyway and any way 135, 668 

Numerals 

Twenty-one etc. 136 Ordinal numbers 138 

One hundred, two hundred and six, etc. 137 Fractions 139 



ABBREVIATIONS 



Abbrevia- 
tions 



Objectionable in general 140, 676 

Grocers' bills etc. 141 
Permissible abbreviations (these proper only in certain contexts) 142 

Detailed explanation of the meaning and proper use of — 

i.e. 143 a viz. 143 d MS. 143 g a.m. 143J 

e.g. 143 & sc. 143 e B.C. 143 h p.m. 143 J 

g.v. 143 c etc. 143/ A.D. 143 i JSTo. 143 h 

Meaning and use of P. 8. and N.B. 144 
Meaning and use of cf., ff., et seq., sq. 
p., pp., I., II. 145 
Abbreviation of titles 

Objectionable in general 146 

Permissible exceptions (these proper only with names) 147 

Proper use of Esq. 148 



sqq., ibid., id., vol., chap., 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES XIX 



THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 

Dates, folios etc., and house numbers —figures 149, 677 Represen- 

Omission of th, st, etc. from dates 150 tation of 

Ordinal numbers — figures or words 151 numbers 

Street numbers not larger than one hundred — words 152 
Sums of money 153-160, 077 

Sign $ improper for sums less than a dollar 154 
Expression ".00" improper 155 
Sums in dollars and cents — $ and figures 156 
Sums in even dollars or in cents 
Frequent — figures 157 
Isolated or few 

Cents — words 158 
Dollars 

One or two words — words 159 
More than two words — figures 159 

Exception : sum beginning a sentence 160 
Years of age — usually words 161 
Hours of the day — usually words 162 

Proper use of ten-thirty etc. 163 
Other numbers 164-167. 077 
Frequent— figures 165 
Isolated or few 

One or two words — words 166 
More than two words — figures 166 

Exception : number beginning a sentence 167 
Parenthetic repetition of numbers 

Misuse 168 Proper use ; position of the parenthesis 169 

Series of numbers represented by terminals 170 
Illogical use with from 171 
Terminals used otherwise than for series 173 

SYLLABICATION 

General rule 173 Monosyllables Syllab- 

Division in accordance with pronuh- Used singly 180 ication 

ciation 174, 078 A In compound word 180 

Prefixes 175, 078.5 In inflectional form 181 

Suffixes 176, 078 C Syllables of one letter 182 

Doubled consonants 177, 078 D Position of the hyphen — never at 

Digraphs th, ch, etc. 178, 078 JS' beginning of a line 183 
Final le 179 

CAPITALS 

Proper nouns 184 Pronouns referring to the Deity 196 Capitals 

Days and months 184, 079 Nor-th, south, etc. 197 

Not seasons 185 Words of race and language 198, 080 

Societies 186 German nouns 199 

Institutions 187 Hyphened words 200 

Departments of government 188 * Ex -President etc. 201 

Federal and state 189 Literary titles etc. 202, 032 

The word state 189 Predications 

Historical events 190 Following period 203 

Common-noun elements of proper Following semicolon 204 

names 191 Following colon 

Common nouns and adjectives in One predication — no capital 

restricted senses 192 205 

Titles of persons Series — capital 206 

With names 193,031 Other- Appositives — no capital 207 

wise 194 President etc. 195 Series of questions grouped 208 



XX 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 



Capitals Predications {continued) Lines of poetry capitalized 213, 602- 

Parenthetic predications 209 605 

Quoted predications 210 Paragraphed clauses capitalized 

Incorporated fragments not 214 
capitalized 211 Use of capitals without good reason 

Fragments not incorporated 212 215 



ITALICS 

Italics Eepresentation of italics in manuscript 216, 682 

Single line — not double or triple 216 
Straight line — not wave 216 
Underlining, not print 216 
Titles of books etc. 

General rule 217, 682 Titles beginning with the or a 



Quotation marks less desir 

able 218 
Exclusion of author's name 

219 
Inaccurate citation 220 
Names of ships 223 
Words discussed 224 
Foreign words 225 
Emphasis ; caution 226 
Misuses of italics 

Labeling humor 227 Without reason 228 



Incorrect omission or exclusion 

of article 221 
The correctly excluded from 

titles of periodicals 222 



PUNCTUATION i 

Punctua- Punctuation Defined 229 (Note on quotation marks 230) 

tion Its two main branches distinguished 231 

Separative punctuation 231 a Designative punctuation 231 b 
Advantages of good punctuation 232 

Clearness 232 a Propriety 232 b 



Separative Punctuation 

Object of the present Part 233 
Terminology of separative punctuation 
In general 234 
The term predication 

Its fundamental importance 235 

Predication, defined 236 (Pure coordinating conjunctions 237) 

Kinds of predications 

Simple and compound 238 

Mechanically joined series excluded 239 
Series joined by adverbs excluded 240 
Separate and component 241 
Independent 242 

Complete independent predications 243, 6S3-6S5 
Virtual complete independent predications 244, 697 
Two branches of separative punctuation distinguished : end punctuation 
and interior punctuation 245, 683 . Importance of the distinction 246 
A Working System op Separative Punctuation 
Purpose 247 
Seven working rules 

I. End punctuation 248 : 684, 685 
II. Coordinate clauses 249 ; 703-706 

1 For an index to the rules of punctuation classified by points, see pages 

385—388 • 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES xxi 

III. Adverbial clause preceding principal 250; 711, 712 Punctua- 

IV. Relative clauses 251 ; 707, 708 tion 
Restrictive and non-rent rictlve explained 252 

V. Erroneous junction 253, 700 
VI. Sequence interrupted bv intervening words 254; 701, 702 
VII. Period fault 255 ; 688, 719, 720 
A More Complete System of Separative Punctuation 
Purpose 256 
End punctuation 

Declarative and imperative predications 
General rule 257, 684, 685 
Period 

In general 258 
Before and, bat, for, etc. 
Permissible 259 
Desirable 

To avoid stringiness 260 
For logical grouping 261 
Colon 262, 738 
Semicolon" 

General rule 263, 686-688 

Explanation 264 

Cause 265 

Consequence 266 

Instance or illustration 267 

Antithesis 268 

Positive and negative 269 

Negative and positive 270 

Eeenforcement 271 

Eepetition 272 

Group of instances 273 

Colon preceding 274 
Components of one impression 275 
Eelation of period and semicolon 276 
Abuse of semicolon 277 
Exclamation mark 278 

Separation of predications introduced by conjunctive adverbs 
A matter of end punctuation 279 
Therefore period or semicolon 280, 6S9-695 
So that and so as to not concerned 281 
Omission of punctuation before so 282 
Separation of predications introduced by for example, that is, 
in fact, etc. 

A matter of end punctuation 283 

Therefore period, colon, or semicolon 284 ; 696, 736, 737 
Comma, not other points, after the expression 285 
Parenthetic predications excepted from Rule 257, 286 
Interrogative predications — question mark 287 
Declarative form used interrogatively 287 
Indirect questions not included 288 
Parenthetic predications included 289 
Exclamative predications — exclamation mark 290 
Confusion of exclamations with questions 290 
Parenthetic predications included 291 
Omission of end punctuation 292 
The comma fault 293, 683, 698, 699 
Common causes 

Closely connected predications 294 
Conjunctive adverbs 295 
For example, that is, in fact, etc. 296 
Quotations with said he interpolated 297 
Not corrected by canceling comma 298 



xxii SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 

Punctua- Interior punctuation 
tion General rules 

Erroneous junction — comma 299, 700 

Interrupted sequence — commas, dashes, or parentheses 300 
Commas usually 301 ; 701, 702 Omission of second 302 
Dashes or parentheses 303 

Commas in addition to dashes ; when right 304 a 
Comma in addition to parentheses : when right 304 b 
Coordinate elements 

Without conjunctions 

Consecutive attributive adjectives 

Coordinate in thought — comma 305 
First superposed — no comma 305 
No comma after last 306 
Ehetorical emendation — dash or dashes 307 
Dash before 307 a 
Dash after — in what cases 307 b 
Commas with dashes in this case 

When right 308 When wrong 309 

Especially introducing emendation 310 
No comma after especially 311 
Other elements — comma or semicolon 312 
Comma usually 313 
Semicolon 314 Misuse 315 

With conjunctions 

Mistaken non-junction — 316 
Clauses — comma or semicolon 317 
Comma usually 318, 703-706 

Comma before for 319, 704, 705 
Indiscriminate commas before and 320 
Semicolon 321 
Other elements 

Usually no separation 322 
Sometimes comma or semicolon 323 
Comma 324 

Or with synonym 325 
Semicolon 326 
Three or more elements with one conjunction — comma or 
semicolon 327 
Elements short — commas 328 

Superfluous comma after last element 329 
Elements long — semicolons 330 Misuse 331 
Uniformity : one point throughout 332 
Subordinate elements 
Adjective modifiers 

Preceding their principals — comma 333 

Restrictive and n on -restrictive (these terms explained 334) 
following their principals 
General rule 335 

Non-restrictive — no separation 335 a 
Restrictive — com ma 335 6 
Relative clauses 336 ; 707, 708 
Participles and participial phrases 337, 709 
Adjectives and adjective phrases 338, 709 
' Such as 

Syntax of such as 339 
Application of Rule 335 340, 710 
No point after such as 341 
Omission of second comma 342 
Adverbial modifiers 

Pure adverbs (distinguished from conjunctive 343) — usually 
no separation 344 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES xxiii 



Adverbial modifiers (continued) Punctua- 

Adverbial phrases and clauses (Parenthetic distinguished 345) tion 
Introductory phrases and clauses (Introductory defined 
346) 

Phrases without verbs — no comma after 347 
Phrases with verbs, and clauses — comma after 
General rule 348 
Complete clauses 349 ; 711, 712 
Elliptical clauses 350 
Gerund phrases 351 
Infinitive phrases 352 
Phrases containing clauses 353 
Misuse of semicolon 354 
Separation from preceding conjunction 
None if and or but precedes 355 
Other conjunctions — comma 356 
Concluding phrases and clauses (Concluding defined 357) 
Eestrictive — no comma 358 

Non-restrictive — usually comma, sometimes semi- 
- colon 359 Misuse of semicolon 360 

Especially 

Restrictive — no comma before 361 
Non-restrictive — comma before 362 
No comma after especially 363 
• Because, 

Non-restrictive — comma before 364 
Intervening verb — comma before 365 
Emphasis on difference between introductory and conclud- 
ing clauses 366 
Interpolated phrases and clauses (Interpolated de- 
fined 367) . 

Phrases without verbs 

Long — commas 368, 701 
Short — no commas 369 
Phrases with verbs, and clauses — commas 370 
Appositives 

Grammatical appositives preceding principals — comma 371 
Grammatical appositives following principals 
General rule — comma or commas 372, 713 

Omission of second comma 373 
Announced appositives — colon or dash 374 
Concluding — colon or dash 375 
Interpolated — dash before and after 376 
Intervening words —dash 377 

Dash after — in what cases 378 
Principal implied — dash 379 

Dash after — in what cases 379 
Adjacent commas— dashes or parentheses 380 
Eestrictive appositives — no comma 381 

Substantive clauses appositive to fact, state- 
ment, question, etc. — no comma 382 a 
Appositive to provisional subject it 382 6 
Rhetorical appositives — colon or dash 383 
Concluding — colon or dash 384 
Interpolated — dash before and after 385 
Appositives with namely etc. — colon or dash 386, 714 
Concluding — colon or dash 387 
Interpolated — dash before and after 388 
Comma after the parenthetic expression 389 
Parenthetic use of that is 390 
Commas with dashes enclosing appositives 
When used 391 a When not 391 b 



XXIV SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 

Punctua- Interior punctuation {continued) 

tion Parenthetic elements {Parenthetic and adverbial distinguished 392) 

Conjunctive adverbs (Pure adverbs excluded 393) 
Introductory conjunctive adverbs 
Marks after 

Subject following- immediately 

So, therefore, etc. — no comma 394 
However and besides — comma 395 
Subject not following immediately — comma 396 
Separation from preceding conjunction 
And and but — no comma 397 
Other conjunctions — comma 398 
Concluding — comma before 399 
Interpolated — two commas 400, 702 
Omission of second 401 
Parenthetic phrases in general (Adverbial excluded 402) 
Introductory parenthetic phrases 
Comma after 403 

Separation from preceding conjunction except and and 
but 404 
Concluding — comma before 405 
Interpolated — two commas 406, 701 
Omission of second 407 
Absolute phrases 

Introductory absolute phrases 
Comma after 408 

Separation from any preceding conjunction 409 
Concluding — comma before 410 
Interpolated — two commas 411 

Omission of second 412 
~No comma after absolute substantive 413 
Parenthetic predications 

Short predications of thinking, saying, etc. 
Concluding — comma before 414 
Interpolated — two commas, 415 
Omission of second 416 
Predication in relative clause excepted 417 
Introductory predications not included ; no comma after 
418 
Appended questions asking for confirmation or assent 
Concluding — comma before 419 
Interpolated — dashes or parentheses 420 
Other predications 

Concluding — dash or parentheses 421 
No comma with dash 422 
Points after second parenthesis 423 
Interpolated — parentheses or dashes 424 
Other points with parentheses 

What points, and where placed 425 
Superfluous commas 426 
Commas with dashes 

When used 427 When not 428 
Vocatives 

Introductory vocatives 

Comma or exclamation mark after 429 
Separation from preceding conjunction except and and 
but 430 
Concluding — comma before 431 
Interpolated — commas, or comma and exclamation mark 432 

Omission of second point 433 
Salutation of a letter — comma or colon 434 
Introduction to a speech —comma or colon 435 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES XXV 



Parenthetic elements {continued) Puiictua- 

Interjections and parenthetic expletives tioii 

Introductory interjections and expletives 
Comma or exclamation mark after 436 
Expletive yes and no 437 
Predicative yes and no — end mark 438 
Omission of points after well, why, and now 439 
Separation from preceding conjunction except and 
and but 440 
Concluding — comma before 441 

Interpolated — commas, or comma and exclamation mark 
443 
Omission of second point 443 
Geographical names — comma or commas 444, 716 

Omission of second comma 445 
Time expressions — comma or commas 446, 716 
Omission of second comma 447 
Interrupted structure 

Complete break — dash 448 
Syntactic substitute — dash 449 

Comma or semicolon —when used before dash 450 
Faltering utterance 451 
Superfluous interior punctuation of sundry kinds 
Superfluous commas 

In general 453, 717, 718 
After relative pronoun 453 
Before that, how, whether, who, etc. 454 
Clause object of say, hear, etc. 454 a 
. Clause used as adverbial noun 454 b 
Before noun clause with that omitted 455 
Before what 456 Within what clause 457 

Before that (result) clause 458 After that 459 

After and 460 With intensive 461 

Superfluous points before a series 463 
The period fault 

General statement 463, 683, 719, 720 
The period fault with appositives 464 
With participial phrases 465 
With absolute phrases 466 
With dependent clauses 467 
Matters concerning both interior and end punctuation 
Separative punctuation of direct quotations 
Quotations preceded by governing verb 
Short — comma usually 468 

Very short and not final — no comma 469 
Quoted fragment — no comma 470 
Long — colon 471 
Quotations with said he interpolated or placed after 
473-479 ; 745-749 
Said he excluded 473 

Points before said he — comma, question mark, or ex- 
clamation mark 474 
Points after said lie 

Complete predication before 

Declarative — period or semicolon 475 

Comma fault by violation 
Interrogative or exclamative — period 476 
Uncompleted predication — comma 477 
Said he not capitalized 478 
Part alter said he, when capitalized 479 
The dash fault 480 
Points at the beginning of a line 481 



XXVI SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 



Designative Punctuation 

Punctua- The possessive case 
tion Nouns 

Singular Plural 

General rule 482, 739 General rule 484, 740 

Dickens's, etc. 483, 741 Men's, children's, etc. 485 

Pronouns 

Hers, ours, etc. 486, 744 Its 487, 743 

One's, ones' 488 
The plural of letters and symbols and words discussed — 's 489 

Misuse of 's in forming other plurals 490 
Abbreviations — period after 491 " L.L,D." etc. 492 

Contractions — apostrophe, mark omitted letters 493 
Misplaced apostrophe 493 
O'clock 494 Till and round 495 

Compound words. Eeference to 102-139 
Divided words. Eeference to 173-183 
Direct quotations 

General rule 496, 745-748 

Indirect quotations excluded 496 
Original assertions emphasized by I say excluded 497 
Wrong separate enclosure of consecutive sentences 498 
Careless omission 499 
Quotations within quotations 500 
Quotations of several paragraphs 501 
Other marks with quotations marks 

Question or exclamation mark 502, 749 
Quotation mark last 502 a 
Other mark last 502 b 

No comma, period, colon, or semicolon besides 502 c 
Impropriety of ?"?'?" ! ! " ! ! " ? 503 
Period or comma — always first 504 
Colon or semicolon — always last 505 
Interpolated matter in a quotation 

Brackets 506 Quotation marks 507 

Technical terms — quotation marks 508 Needless 50© 
Ehetorical effects 

Apology —quotation marks 510 
Misuse of the device 

Good English mistaken for slang 511 
Proper names mistaken for nicknames 511 
Humorous context 512 
Colloquial context 513 
Apology within quotation 514 
Diminished prominence — parentheses 

Complete independent predication 515 

Position of the period 516 
Member of a predication 517 

Other points with parentheses 

What points, and where placed 518 
Superfluous commas 519 
Afterthought — dash or dashes 

Member in the midst of a predication — two dashes 520 
Commas in addition to dashes 

When used 521 When not 522 

Final member — dash preceding 523 No comma 524 

Abuse of this device 525 
Pause — dash 526 
Faltering— dash 527 
Wonder or mirth — exclamation mark 528 



SYNOPSIS OF THE RULES 



XXVll 



Rhetorical effects {continued) 

Inquiry — question mark 

Insistent or eager questioning 529 
Question declarative in form 530 

Conjecture — parenthesized question mark 531 Abuse 532 

Sundry errors of designative punctuation 

Misuses of quotation marks 533 . 

With headings 533 a With proverbial phrases 533 e 

With proper names 533 & For labeling humor 533/ 

With letters and symbols 533 c Without any good reason 533 g 
With extemporized words 533 d 

Misuses of parentheses and brackets 534 

For emphasis 534a With literary titles 534c 

With words discussed 534& With letters and symbols 534(2 

First of a pair of quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets at the be- 
ginning of a line 535 



Punctua- 
tion 



PARAGRAPHING 

Explanation of the term thought-component 536 

The Fundamental Principle 



Para- 
graphing 



The fundamental principle stated and illustrated 537 ; 750, 751 

The fundamental principle analyzed into the two canons of paragraphing : 

The Canon of Unity 

The Canon of Advantage 
These illustrated in a general way 538 



The Canon of Unity 



The canon stated 539, 752 
Rules derived from it 

Consecutive thought-components not constituting one larger compo- 
nent not to be united 
General rule 540 
Introduction of a whole composition to be paragraphed separately 

541 
Conclusion of a whole composition to be paragraphed separately 

542 
Introduction of a thought-component of several paragraphs to be 

paragraphed separately 543 
Conclusion of a thought-component of several paragraphs to be 

paragraphed separately 544 
Transition paragraphs 545 
One thought-component and part of the following not to be united 

546 
Part of one thought-component and all of the following not to be 

united 547 
Part of one thought-component and part of the following not to be 

united 548 
Thought-component beginning in midst of a paragraph not to be 

broken 549, 752 
All material in a paragraph to fall under one topic — the Topic Rule 
The rule stated and illustrated 550 

Correction of violations of the rule. (Avoidance of violations better 
than correction ; and how to avoid them 551) 
Correction in a well-constructed composition : change of para- 
graphing 552 



XXviii SYNOPSIS OF THE KULES 

Para- The Topic Eule {continued) 

graphing Correction of violations {continued) 

b F Correction in a defective composition. (Change of com- 

position-structure necessary 553) 
Cancellation of irrelevant matter 
In general 554 

Frequent application to last paragraph 555 
Making irrelevant matter relevant 
The process in general 556 
Making relevant by subordination 557 
Making relevant by addition 558 
Transposition of irrelevant matter 
The process in general 559 

Not bodily transposition 560 
Frequent application to first paragraph 561 
Total reconstruction of composition ; how effected 563 
Suspension of the Canon of Unity for emphasis 563 

The Canon of Advantage 

The canon stated 564 
Eules derived from it 

Paragraph divisions too infrequent (Unbroken text fatiguing 565) 
Composition improperly written without paragraphing 566 
Paragraphs too long 567 
Paragraph divisions overfrequent (Much-broken text annoying 568) 
Composition properly written without paragraphing 569 
Improper separation of minute sub-components 570 
Scanty and scrappy paragraphs 

The rule stated and illustrated 571 

Elimination of scrappy paragraphs (Avoidance better than cor- 
rection ; and how to avoid them 572) 
In a well-constructed composition ; change of paragraphing 

573 
In a defective composition (Change of composition-struc- 
ture necessary 574) 
Cancellation of scrappy paragraph 
Cancellation in general 575 
Change of title necessary 576 
Cancellation of fatuous introduction 577 
Cancellation of fatuous conclusion 578 
Expansion to right proportion 579 
Transposition 580 

Amputated conclusions 

The fault illustrated 581 
Correction by cancellation, expansion, or trans- 
position 582 
Total reconstruction ; how effected 583 
Direct quotations 

General rule 584, 753 

Indention of line following 585, 601 

Indention after he said. 

Proper in general 586 When wrong 587 

Mistaken applications 

To quotations not narrated 588 
To quotations in exposition etc. 588 
Narrated conversation 589, 753 
The paragraphing of narration as affected by the rule 590 



SYNOPSIS OF THE EXERCISES 



Exercises in Manuscript-Arrangement 



Indention 601 

Poetry 

Left-over parts of lines 602 
Grouping of words into lines 

Shelley 603 Swinburne 604 

Quotations of verse in prose context ( 



V Allegro 605 



Exercises 



Verbs in r {occur etc.) 610 
Verbs in p (drop etc.) 611 
Verbs in t (omit etc.) 612 
Verbs in n (plan etc.) 613 



Before ing 616 
Before ful, less, 



' Exercises in Spelling 
Effects of suffixes 

Doubling- of final consonants 
Miscellaneous words 607 
Miscellaneous verbs 60S 
Miscellaneous monosyllabic 
verbs 609 
Trafficking etc. 614 
Dropping of final e 
Before able 615 
Eetaining of final e 

Courageous etc. 617 
Completely etc. 618 
Words in y 

Plurals in ies and eys 620 
Business etc. 622 

Various suffixes (marriage, carria 
Lie, Lying, etc. 624 
Studying etc. 625 
Finally etc. 627 
Inflectional endings 
Plurals 

In s and es 629 
Present third singulars in s and 
Stem terminations 

Adjectives infill 632 Adjectives in ous 633 

Adverbs beginning with al 635 
Similar words often confounded 
Accept and except 636 
Ad v ice and advise ; de- 
vice and devise 637 
A feet and effect 638 
Already and all ready 



ment, and ness 619 



Verbs in ies and led 621 

, necessarily, etc.) 623 

Suddenness etc. 626 
Accidentally etc. 628 

In ves (leaves, selves, etc.) 630 631 
s 

Verbs in le 634 



Angel and angle 640 
Clothes and cloths 641 
Costume and custom 642 
Drown and drowned 643 
Formerly and formally 

644 
Hear and 7*ere 645 
Incident and incidence 

646 
Later and fatter 647 



Lead and Zeo3 648 
Loose and Zo.se 649 
Passed and £>a.s2 650 
Principal and principle 651 
Proceed and precede, etc. 

Spelling 652 

Meaning 653 
Quiet and gwito 654 
Receive, believe, etc. 655 
77/<7>? and Me?? 656 
77ie?r and Mere 657 
7b, too, ?u'o 

Meaning 658 

Use of too 659 
Woman and women 660 



XXX SYNOPSIS OF THE EXEKCISES 

Exercises All right 661 

Disappear and disappoint 662 

Professor etc. 663 

General exercise for dictation 664 

Exercises concerning Compound and Derivative Words 

Hyphened words. Dictation exercise 665 

Awhile and a while 666 

Sometime and some time 667 

Anyway and any ivay 668 

Solid words 

Words in self 669 together 671 

Words in ever 670 together, instead, etc. 672 

/Somebody and some one, etc. 673 

Separate words — each other, other hand, in spite, in fact, in order 674 

General exercise for dictation 675 

Exercise concerning Abbreviations 
Sentences containing improper abbreviations, to be corrected 676 

Exercise in the Bepresentation of Numbers 

Sentences to be dictated 677 

Exercises in Syllabication 

Miscellaneous words to be syllabi- Words containing doubled conso- 

fied 678 A nants 678 D 

Words with prefixes 678 B Words containing the digraphs th, 

Words with suffixes 678 G sh, etc. 678 E 

Exercises in Capitalization 

Names of months and days 679 Words of race and language 680 

General exercise for dictation 681 

Exercise in Italicizing 
Literary titles 682 

Exercises in Punctuation 

Discrimination between end and interior punctuation — twenty-four sen- 
tences to be examined 683 
End punctuation 

Two passages printed without punctuation — periods to be inserted 

Man overboard 684 Devilfish 6S5 

Semicolon 

Two sets of grouped predications — semicolon to be inserted 686, 

687 
A set of predications — new predication to be attached to each 688 
Predications introduced by conjunctive adverbs 

So 689 ' ' Then 692 

Therefore 690 ' Otherwise 693 

Still, however, neverthe- Miscellaneous 694, 695 

less 691 
Predications introduced by in fact 696 
Virtual predications 697 
The comma fault — two sets of examples to be corrected 698, 699 



SYNOPSIS OF THE EXERCISES XXXI 

Interior punctuation Exercises 

Mistaken junction 700 
Sequence interrupted by intervening words 

Miscellaneous 701 However 702 , 

• Coordinate clauses to be separated 
Joined by and 703 
Joined by for 704, 705 
Joined by miscellaneous conjunctions 706 
Eelative clauses 707, 708 
Restrictive and non-restrictive adjective phrases 

Miscellaneous examples 709 Such as expressions 710 

Adverbial clauses preceding principals 711, 712 
Appositives 

Miscellaneous 713 Introduced by namely and viz. 714 

Vocatives 715 

Geographical expressions and dates 716 
Superfluous commas 717, 718 

The period fault — two sets of examples to be corrected 719, 720 
Miscellaneous exercises in interior punctuation 

Two sets of sentences — punctuation to be supplied 721, 722 
Eleven plans of sentence-structure — three sentences to be com- 
posed according to each plan, and punctuated 723-733 
Exercises involving both end and interior punctuation 

Two sets of- miscellaneous expressions — punctuation to be supplied 

734, 735 
.End and interior punctuation with/or example 736 
v End and interior punctuation with that is 737 
The use of the colon for both end and interior punctuation 738 
Designative punctuation 

The possessive case Direct quotations 

Singular 739 ' Said lie interpolated 

Plural 740 Said he final 745 

Nouns in s 741 Semicolon 746 

Miscellaneous nouns, sin- Miscellaneous 747, 748 

gular and plural 742 Question and exclamation 

Its 743 marks with quotation 

Ours, yours, theirs, hers 744 marks 749 

Exekcises in Paragraphing 

Five unparagraphed passages to be paragraphed 

The Indian 750 Increasing one's vocabulary 

The humor of Addison 751 A 751 O 

Addison in Italy 751 B A dream of an old home 751 Z> 

Two ill-paragraphed passages to be criticised 

Character of cities 752 A American life 752 B 

A General Exercise 

Manuscript-arrangement, spelling, capitalizing, italicizing, punctuation, and 
paragraphing to be determined 753 



THE MECHANICS OF WRITING 

MANUSCRIPT 

Writing Materials 

1 . The paper for the manuscript of a literary compo- Writing 

sition should be unruled, unless special circumstances, materials 
such as the regulations of a class, require the contrary. 

2. The writing should be done either with a type- Only one 

writer or with black ink. 3. Only one side of each ^Jl^^L 

" P«ip61 LO 

sheet of paper should be written on. be used 

Formation of Letters and Symbols 

4. In forming a letter do not decorate with flourishes Conspicu- 
not necessary for identifying it, or with conspicuous n ^ e s n ° ina ~ 
shading. Avoid especially such forms as the following: 



2 MANUSCRIPT 

Prefer plain forms like the following : 



Dots and 
cross- 
strokes 



Shape of 
quotation 
marks and 
apos- 
trophes 



Roman 
numbers : 



Cross- 
strokes 



K L M Al ? % * 



T V U) 



f 



5. Do not neglect dotting Vs and fs and crossing fs 
and x's. 6. Place the cross of a t across the stem of 
the t, not elsewhere. Place the dot of an i or a j imme- 
diately above the i or the j, not elsewhere. 7. Making 
the crosses of fs conspicuous for their length, peculiar 
shape, or peculiar direction is a hindrance to legibility and 
an annoyance to the reader. Cross a t with a straight 
horizontal stroke not more than a quarter of an inch long. 

8. Form quotation marks and apostrophes, not as in 
this illustration : 



cuS* *^e ^ "Jti*jt\ tL 



>** 



but as in this : 

9. Horizontal cross-strokes at the top and the bottom 
of Roman numbers are unnecessary except to distinguish 
I, II, and III from 1, 11, and 111 ; with other numbers 
such strokes need not be used. 



Right : 



VUl 



vuJLU M< 



As>~4>j . 



M« <f r e<**-e~^J& jf-e~f*-**+. 



JrL^ 



K%Ji 



lu xm. 



FORMATION OF LETTERS AND SYMBOLS 3 

10. A cross-stroke should never be drawn under a V, 
an L, a C, or an M in any Roman number ; nor above a 
C or an M. 

Right : 

IV V VIII XLV/I MCVUI 

11. When two or more consecutive stems in a Roman 
number are cross-stroked, a separate stroke for each stem 
should not be made in manuscript ; one continuous stroke 
should be used. 

Right : 

ir ur ir m Z£E 

. But preferable : 

jr jm iv vn xx/ 

12. The Roman symbol for 4 is IV. The symbol IV. not 

ii TT TT " 

IIII is incorrect, except on the dials of timepieces. 

13. Roman numbers were, according to old usage, No period 
always followed by the period. But this custom no Roman 
longer obtains-. numbers 

Right: Chapters IV, V, and VI are of chief importance. 

Words 

14. Do not leave gaps between consecutive letters in Gaps be- 
a word. Especially avoid leaving a wide interval be- w^ers 
tween an initial capital and the rest of the word. 

BAD: 



MANUSCRIPT 

Right : 



S^drK^A , /£-*. i ^-e »» / £ *^jL*~*JL 



Oblique 
and 



15. Do not write and on an oblique line. 
BAD: 



Right : 



Lines 

Space be- 16. Do not crowd consecutive words close together. 

tween 

words HARD TO READ : 



Improved : 



» t a .+*. j L 




Extra 17. Between a period, a question mark, an exclama- 

space after ,. , . , , -. . tj.it 

period etc. *ion niark, a semicolon, a colon, a word immediately be- 
fore a direct quotation, the last word of a direct quota- 
tion, — between any of these and a word following on 
the same line, leave double the usual space between 
words. 



WORDS AND LINES 5 

BAD: 

Right : 

18. Do not crowd marks of punctuation close to one Crowding 
another or to the words next them. punctua- 

tion 
BAD: 

fit* JvO^^pt- —h«-y 

H 





19. Let a liberal space intervene between consecutive Space 
lines in a manuscript. Do not let the loops of fs, g's, i^^ een 
j's, q's, y's, and z's in any line descend below the general 
level of the loops of b's, fs, h's, Jc's, and Vs in the line 
below. (Compare the illustrations on pages 6 and 7.) 



MANUSCRIPT 




<?q co TtJiocot-xo^o r-i N co ^ 10 o n 



LINES 



4 -i 

8 ^4 



i 






i 




8 



MANUSCRIPT 



Crowding 
at bottom 
of page 



Page 
numbers 



Position 
of title 



Margin at 
the top 



Margin at 
the left 



The right- 
hand 
margin 



20. Do not crowd the writing at the bottom of a 
page ; take a new page. 

Pages 

21. The pages of a manuscript should be numbered 
at the top, in Arabic, not Roman numbers. 

22. The title should be written at least two inches 
from the top of the page. Between the title and the first 
line of the composition at least an inch should intervene. 

23. The first line of each page should stand at least 
an inch from the top of the page. 

24. There should be a blank margin of at least two 
inches at the left side of each page. 

25. The right-hand ends of the lines of writing on a 
page of manuscript should not vary unnecessarily in dis- 
tance from the edge of the page. The right-hand mar- 
gin of a manuscript need not be, like that of a printed 
page, perfectly straight ; but it should not be conspicu- 
ously straggling in outline. 

BAD (observe the straggling right-hand margin) : 



£a£z>%> Ja» 



v~mA £c 



PAGES AND PARAGRAPHS 9 

Improved (compare the right-hand margin with that of the 
preceding copy) : 




Paragraphs * 

26. In manuscript the first line of every paragraph IncLiuum 
should be indented at least an inch — that is, should 
begin at least an inch farther to the right than lines that 
do not begin paragraphs. 

WRONG : 
Right : 

M f j*JLl<^* i- Tie rf£U* 

1 See Exercise 601. 



10 



MANUSCRIPT 






Initial 

quotation 

mark 



27. When the first word of a paragraph is preceded 
by a quotation mark, the indention should be measured 
from the margin to the quotation mark, not from the 
margin to the first word. The following indention is right : 

Para- 28. A paragraph occupying only one line — i.e., one 

one P line° consisting of a very few words or of only one word — 
should be begun at the same distance from the left-hand 
margin as any other paragraph, as in the following: 




"&~Jl f 



PARAGRAPHS 11 

29. When a paragraph is marked by a number or a Numbered 
letter, the indention should be measured from the mar- ^aplis 
gin to the number or letter, not from the margin to the 
first word. 
Right : 

I. What power has Congress to punish crimes ? 

II. State in what cases the Supreme Court has 
original jurisdiction. 

III. How are presidential electors chosen ? Would 
it be constitutional for a state legislature to choose 
them? 

, 30. The first lines of all paragraphs should begin at Irregular 
the same distance from the margin ; do not indent the ln entlon 
beginning of one paragraph an inch, that of another two 
inches, that of another half an inch, etc. 

31. No line except the first line of a paragraph should Incorrect 
be indented in the slightest. indention 

32. After the end of a sentence do not leave the re- Partially 

mainder of the line blank unless the sentence ends a para- i D a t ^ e me 

graph ; begin the next sentence on the same line if there midst of a 

paragraph 
is room. 

WRONG : 




PLa yua^^t ^cj^^t i^-L^cJi -£-*w Ltu^*. TLsl 



12 MANUSCRIPT 

Right : 



TU sCU^-y^^f,, y tU 4-y~UL t fJX*. 




JtsJl u^uL jU 

Partially 33. Where a partially blank line is followed by a line 

followed 6 w hi cn i s n °t indented, there is a blunder in manuscript 
by flush arrangement. If the partially blank line is the last of a 
paragraph, the failure to indent the following line is a 
blunder ; if the following line is not the first of a new 
paragraph, to leave the preceding line blank is a blunder. 
In such a case, either the preceding line should be filled 
out, or else the following line should be indented. For 
example, the manuscript arrangement in the following 
illustration is wrong : 



WRITING VERSE 13 

In the foregoing passage it is not clear whether or not 
a new paragraph begins with "Now." If a new para- 
graph is to begin with " Now," the passage should be 
written as follows : 

lLu~ l < « ■ ft i . * ~IL*>~\ £nJ*JQ-* O .-4-fL 

If a new paragraph is not to begin with " Now," the 
passage should be written thus : 

ttji.^. if * « Q >■ J- tL^^T t^&-^a o-~~A -jj^-b^r-Q-*-^ 

Writing Verse 1 

34. If an entire line of poetry cannot be written on Left-over 
one line of the page, the part left over should be carried P arts of 
on and indented as shown in the following example : 
i Ci. Rule 213; and see Exercises 602-606. 



14 



MANUSCRIPT 



Irregular 
indention 
in verse 



Right : 

Lombard and Venetian merchants with deep-laden 

argosies ; 
Ministers from twenty nations ; more than royal 

pomp and ease. 

WRONG : 

Lombard and Venetian merchants with deep-laden 
argosies ; 

Ministers from twenty nations ; more than royal 
pomp and ease. 

35. Left-over parts of lines should begin at the same 
distance from the edge of the page. 

WRONG: 

But there is neither East nor West, Border nor 

Breed nor Birth 
When two strong men stand face to face, though 
they come from the ends of the earth. 

Right : 

But there is neither East nor West, Border nor 

Breed nor Birth 
When two strong men stand face to face, though 

they come from the ends of the earth. 

36. A quotation of poetry should be grouped into lines 
exactly as the original is grouped. 

BAD: 

Once to every man and nation 

Comes the moment to decide 

In the strife of truth with falsehood for the 

Good or evil side. 

Right: 

Once to every man and nation comes the moment to 

decide 
In the strife of truth with falsehood for the good or 

evil side. 

Verse set 37. A quotation of verse occurring in a prose compo- 

tiie pa° e sition should begin on a new line. The prose following such 

a quotation should also begin on a new line, indented if it 



Grouping 
of verse 
into lines 



QUOTATIONS OP PROSE 



15 



above and 
below 



begins a new paragraph, flush with the left-hand margin 
if it continues the paragraph containing the quotation. 
Both before and after the quotation somewhat more space Space 
should intervene than the regular space between consecu- 
tive lines. 

WRONG : 

While Tennyson admits that sorrow may be for our 
ultimate advantage, and that, as his great memorial 
says, "Men may rise on stepping stones 

Of their dead selves to higher things,' ! 

yet he finds it impossible to get any 
present consolation from the thought. 

Right : 

While Tennyson admits that sorrow may be for our 
ultimate advantage, and that, as his great memorial 
says, 

" Men may rise on stepping stones 
Of their dead selves to higher things," 

yet he finds it impossible to get any present consolation 
from the thought. 



Extended Quotations of Prose 

38. A passage of prose quoted from a written compo- Extended 

sition or a formal speech, if it is three or four sentences quotations 

i n set a P art 

long or longer, should be set apart from the matter pre- on the 

ceding and following it, in the same way as a quotation pa§e 

of verse (see Rule 37). 

Right : 

The plea of every inventor of a new gun or explo- 
sive, that his invention will end all war by making 
it too frightful for humanity to engage in, is dis- 
puted by States Councilor Dr. von Bruns, who bases 
his calculations on the proportion of killed and 
wounded shown by the government records of the 
Russo-Japanese War. He writes : 

"The loss in killed and wounded, in proportion to 
the number engaged, was as high in the Manchurian 
campaign as in the bloodiest battle in the War of 



16 MANUSCRIPT 

1870-71, on the German side. The proportion of, 
those who died on the field of battle is much higher 
than in previous wars (the Chino-Japanese, the Turk- 
ish-Greek, the American-Spanish, and the Boer wars). 
The proportionate number of those seriously wounded 
or laid up by their injuries is much smaller than in 
previous wars. The proportion of those slightly 
wounded is much higher than in previous wars. 
More than a tenth of the wounded were able to 
return to the ranks, and one half of them returned 
to active duty at the expiration of three months." 

The idea which is said to have inspired Richard Jordan 
Gatling in inventing his famous weapon — namely, that 
he might make battles shorter and more fatal to com- 
batants, and war intolerable and eventually impossible 
— Dr. von Bruns declares is illusory. 



Tabulated Lists 

Hanging 39. A list of items set down in tabular form should 

in en ion -^ wr ^ en w ^h w hat is technically called hanging inden- 
tion ; i.e., in those items that consist of more than one 
line, the first line should extend farther to the left than 
the remaining lines. 

WRONG : 

The principal powers of the President are — 

(a) The power to conduct foreign affairs 

(5) The power to command the army and 

navy in time of war 

(c) The power to veto bills 

(d) The power to appoint officers (subject 
to the approval of the Senate) 

Right (observe the hanging indention in items b and d) : 
The principal powers of the President are — 

(a) The power to conduct foreign affairs 

(b) The power to command the army and 

navy in time of war 

(c) The power to veto bills 

Id) The power to appoint officers (subject to 
the approval of the Senate) 



ALTERATIONS IN MANUSCRIPT 17 

40. A list of items in tabular form should be set apart Tabulated 
from the matter preceding and following it, in the same ™^ o n et 
manner as a quotation of verse (see Rule 37). the page 

BAD: 

Under this subject there are three important headings: 

(a) Position of pronouns 

(b) Use of connectives 

(c) Position of phrases ; all of which are to be 
carefully studied. 

Right : 
Under this subject there are-three important headings : 
(a) Position of pronouns 
(&) Use of connectives 
(c) Position of phrases 
all of which are to be carefully studied. 

Note. — Another way of correcting the errors above 
shown is to write the passage without tabulating the 
items, thus : 

Right : Under this subject there are three important 
headings : (a) Position of pronouns, (b) Use of 
connectives, and (c) Position of subordinate expres- 
sions ; all of which are to be carefully studied. 

Alterations in Manuscript 

41. A few words to be inserted in a manuscript Insertion 
should be written above the line, and their proper posi- 
tion should be indicated by the caret (a), placed below 

the line. Words so inserted should not be inclosed in 
parentheses or brackets unless these marks would be 
required were the words written on the line. 

cat 
Right : A big was prowling under the window. 

A 

42. The sign to be used in making insertions is A, Inverted 
not "V." caret 

43. Words to be inserted should not be written at the Misuse of 
bottom of the page preceded by an asterisk ( * ) corre- asterisk 



18 



MANUSCRIPT 






sponding with an asterisk at the place where they are 
to be inserted. This use of the asterisk is proper only 
for annotations * (as at the bottom of this page) — - never 
for insertions in the text. 

Insertion 44. Obscurity results from writing an insertion in the 

next line manner shown in the Bad example below : 

BAD: 

as an agreeable means 
Although tennis is at present very popular * it probably 
of exercising the muscles, 

will never rank with football as a game for supremacy 
between colleges. 

Right : 

as an agreeable means of exercising the muscles, 
Although tennis is at present very popular ^ it probably 
will never rank with football as a game for supremacy 
between colleges. 

Right : 

as an agreeable means 
Although tennis is at present very popular /\ it probably 
of exercising the muscles, it probably 

/\will never rank with football as a game for supremacy 
between colleges. 



Insertions 
of several 
lines 



45. When a passage that will occupy several lines is 
to be inserted in the midst of a page of manuscript, the 
insertion should be made in one of the following ways : 

(a) When the place at which the insertion is to be 
made is in the lower half of the page, the matter follow- 
ing that place should be canceled, the passage to be in- 
serted should be written, followed by the canceled matter, 
on a fresh page, and the fresh page should be numbered 
with an intercalary number (e.g., 6a, — signifying that 
the page comes between page 6 and page 7, — 3a, la, 
etc.) and inserted after the page on which the canceled 

* An annotation is a comment or explanation, often written 
at the foot of a page, and in that case called a footnote. In 
modern usage, footnotes are usually referred to by means of 
small figures, technically called superiors. See, for example, 
the footnotes on page 31 of this book. 



ALTERATIONS IN MANUSCRIPT 19 

matter first stood. For example, suppose page 3 of a Insertions 
manuscript is like the following illustration : lines 




QjPU. t Lu~m . J^+JL tywft. . 1^ 

&~-U M***. Jlz^^C rLtreU* *-*+> 

Ja XU-£^C-^t2-<^ . //^ ^ ^ 



and suppose it is desired to insert after "dragon," in 
line 8, the following sentence : " The typical Bronte 
character is, indeed, a kind of monster." The matter 
following " dragon " should be canceled. Then the sen- 
tence to be inserted should be written on an intercalary- 
page numbered 3a, and should be followed by the matter 
canceled at the bottom of page 3. Pages 3 and 3a 
should then be as represented in the illustrations on the 
following page. 



20 



MANUSCRIPT 



Insertions 
of several 
lines 



JZ^e^J, *SLo-*-A 0~i-+. 'u-L* f in. * A , 






'i/*t^»ULULjr r 



i *f . 4 . ^i fe ** 



.2 



3A 



tr 



^ Tk*. '\*^fLjL*Jl HfL^o^JjL tM^u^o^K. - 



U 



-fLa*-dl 



k~~Jl 






ALTERATIONS IN MANUSCRIPT 21 

(b) When the place at which the insertion is to be Insertions 
made is in the upper half of the page, the matter pre- ii u || vera 
ceding that place should be canceled where it stands and 
should be copied, followed by the passage to be inserted, 
on a fresh page, and this page should be marked with an 
intercalary number and inserted before the page on which 
the canceled matter first stood. For example, suppose 
page 4 of a manuscript is like the following illustration : 






22 MANUSCRIPT 

Insertions and suppose it is desired to insert after " living, " in line 
lhies Veral ^' ^ ne f°ll° wm & passage : " Behold, then, our cynical 
youth, who had already seen the world as Australians never 
see it, whose brain was stored with art and literature, 
acting as clerk in a Melbourne bank!" The insertion 
should be made on an intercalary page numbered 3a, as 
shown by the following illustrations : 



3* 
4JUL *^t ' ^TUtraA ^ UtUt 



ALTERATIONS IN MANUSCRIPT 23 



t t \ muL m jv 




!»■ unit begy gg wjwi iil< , 

tut cl fU^LJc , y^r u^r^uUx. 



46. Erasures should be made by drawing a line through Erasure 
the words to be canceled. Parentheses or brackets should 

not be used for this purpose. 

47. Words written in one place which are to be trans- Trans- 
posed to another, should be canceled (see Rule 46) and P osltlon 
inserted in the proper place by the method shown in Rule 



24 



MANUSCRIPT 



No other method of 



Indicating 
a new 
paragraph 

Sign 1[ 
wrong side 
before 



41 or by that shown in Eule 45. 
transposition should be used. 

48. When it is desired that a word standing in the 
midst of a paragraph should begin a new paragraph, the 
sign IT should be .placed immediately before that word. 
The change should not be indicated otherwise. 49. Ob- 
serve that in the paragraph sign IT the curved member 
extends to the left of the upright member. 

Canceling 50. The way to cancel a paragraph division is to write 
2 a, a if " * n ^ ne mar gi n the expression No IT, or to draw a curved 
division line as shown in the following illustration : 



1++ tLLa W-twuC-^l 



Afo* 



"rt^jc 







»t u ^< t^ O ^. 



*j^t • 7 ^7 



L.im - 7 



Pages in 
order 

Not to be 
rolled 



The Finished Manuscript 

51. (a) The pages of a finished manuscript should 
be placed in numerical order, (b) The manuscript should 
not be rolled ; it should go to its destination either flat 
or folded as simply as possible. 



SPELLING 



Effects of Suffixes 1 



52. In monosyllables 2 and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending in one consonant 2 (except x) preceded by 
one vowel 2 or by qu and one vowel, the final consonant is 
doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; e.g., bid, 
bidden; god, goddess; quiz, quizzes; occur, occur- 
rence. Hence the following rules (53-56) : 53. A verb 
of the class of words described doubles the final letter 
when ed or ing is added. Thus : drop, dropped, drop- 
ping; plan, planned, planning; equip, equipped, 
equipping. 54. An adjective of the class described 
doubles the final letter when en is added. Thus : sad, 
sadden; glad , gladden ; flat, flatten. 55. An adjective 
of the class described doubles the final letter when er or 
est is added. Thus: glad, gladder y gladdest. 56. Any 
word of the class described doubles the final letter when 
ish or y is added. Thus: man, mannish; squab, 
squabby. 

57. Eule 52 does not usually apply to words in which Mistaken 
the accent is shifted to a preceding syllable; thus: ^sT" 
refer, referred, but reference ; confer, conferring, but Reced . 
conference; equip, equipped, but equipage. But ing accent 
excel, excellence. 

58. The final consonant in words not accented on the 
last syllable is not usually doubled before a suffix. Thus : 
benefit, benefited; combat, combated, combatant. In 

i See Exercises 607-628. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 
25 



Doubling 
of final 
conso- 
nants: 

In general 



Before ed 
and ing 



Before en 



Before er 
and est 

Before ish 
and y 



(ii) Benefit 
etc. 



26 



SPELLING 



Worship, 

travel, 

etc. 



(in) Suffix 
beginning 
with 
consonant 



Pic- 
nicked 
etc. 



Silent e 
dropped 



Notice- 
able etc. 



the words worship and kidnap and numerous w r ords end- 
ing in I preceded by one vowel and not accented on the 
last syllable (e.g., bevel, chisel, civil, counsel, imperil, 
jewel, quarrel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel), the 
final consonant may be doubled before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel ; but it is better not to double it ; it is 
better to write, e.g., worshiper, worshiping, worshiped; 
"kidnaped; traveler, traveling, traveled, etc. 

59. A final consonant is not doubled before a suffix 
beginning with a consonant. Thus : fit, fitting, but fit- 
ness; equip, equipped, but equipment. 

60. Words ending in c add k before a suffix beginning 
with e, i, or y. Thus : picnic, picnicked, picnicker; 



shellac, shellacked; 
panic, panicky. 



traffic, trafficking, trafficker; 



61. Words ending in silent e usually drop the e before 
a suffix beginning with a vowel. Thus : love, lovable ; 
stone, stony. Hence, a verb ending in silent e drops e 
when ing is added. Thus : shine, shining ; come, com- 
ing ; settle, settling. But note : 

62. Words ending in ce or ge do not drop e when ons 
or able is added. Thus: notice, noticeable; outrage, 
outrageous. 

Note. — C and g in words of French, Latin, and Greek 
derivation usually have the soft sound before e, i, and y, as 
cede, genial, civil, giant, cyanide, gymnasium; elsewhere 
they have the hard sound, as calendar, Gallic, code, gorgon, 
acute, gusto. (Get, geese, gew-gaw, geld, giddy, gift, gig, 
giggle, gild, begin, gird, girdle, girl, and give are not of 
the above-mentioned derivation. ) Notice how the principle 
applies to accent, accident, flaccid, occiput, accept, accurate, 
desiccate, except, excuse. On account of this principle, the 
e must be retained in such words as noticeable and cour- 
ageous, in order to keep the soft sound of c and g. 



EFFECTS OF SUFFIXES 27 

63. Words ending in silent e do not usually drop e Severely 
before a suffix beginning with a consonant; e.g., care- etc * 
less, hopeless, noiseless, completely, severely, lonely, 
largely, separately, politely, intimately, fortunately, 
careful, hateful, useful, tuneful, movement, statement, 
announcement, politeness, rudeness, crudeness, white- 
ness. Exceptions : abridgment, acknowledgment, judg- 
ment, lodgment, argument, awful, duly, truly, wholly. 

64. A common noun ending in y preceded by a conso- Final y : 
nant forms the plural in ies; as library, libraries. A Plurals 
noun ending in y preceded by a vowel forms the plural 

in ys; as valley, valleys; display, displays. As to 
proper nouns ending in y, see Rule 76. 

.65. A verb ending in y preceded by a consonant forms Verbs 
its present third singular in ies and its past in ied. 
Thus: rely, relies, relied; marry, marries, married. 

66. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant usually Happi- 
change the y to i before a suffix. Thus : beauty, beau- ness etc * 
tiful; busy, business; carry, carriage; handy, handi- 
craft; happy, hapj)iness; lonely, loneliness; many, 
manifold; marry, marriage ; mercy, merciful; merry, 
merriment; necessary, necessarily; weary, wearily, 
weariness. 

67. Verbs ending in ie change ie to y before ing. Lying 
Thus: lie, lying; die, dying; tie, tying; vie, vying. etc * 

68. Verbs ending in y do not drop the y before ing. Studying 
Thus: study, studying ; hurry, hurrying; carry, car- etc * 
vying ; mavvy, marrying ; bury, burying. 

69. Adjectives ending in n do not drop the n before Sudden- 
ness. Thus: sudden, suddenness; drunken, drunken- ness etc ' 
ness; stubborn, stubbornness; sullen, sullenness; green, 
greenness. 



28 



SPELLING 



Finally 
etc. 



Accident- 
ally etc. 



Heroic- 
ally etc* 



Plurals in 

s and es : 

Consonant 
ending 



Final w 



Plurals 
in ves 



Plural of 
nouns in o 



70. Words ending in I do not drop the I before ly. 
Thus: final, finally ; real, really; actual, actually; 
casual, casually ; original, originally ; practical, prac- 
tically ; cool, coolly ; continual, continually ; general, 
generally ; principal, principally. 

71. Accident, intention, incident, occasion, and ex- 
ception do not take ly to form adverbs, but ally. Thus : 
accident, accidentally. 

72. Adjectives in ic do not take ly to form adverbs, 
but ally. Thus: heroic, heroically ; poetic, poetically ; 
prosaic, prosaically; artistic, artistically; dramatic, 
dramatically. 

Inflectional Endings 1 

73. (a) Common 2 nouns ending in a consonant 2 usually 
add es, to form the plural, when the plural has an extra 
syllable ; when the plural has no extra syllable, they add 
only s. Thus : lass, lasses ; lad, lads. (But note Kule 
74.) 

(6) Nouns ending in aw, ew, and ow form the plural 
by adding s. (Cf. Rules 64 and 776.) Thus : law, laws; 
saw, saws; view, views; cow, cows. 

74. The words leaf, thief, sheaf, wife, life, knife, 
half, calf, wolf, loaf, shelf, elf self, and compound words 
ending in self form the plural in ves. Thus : leaf, 
leaves; yourself, yourselves. 

75. Of common 2 nouns ending in o, some add es to 
form the plural ; e.g., bravadoes, buffaloes, calicoes, 
dadoes, desperadoes, dodoes, dominoes (game), echoes, 
fandangoes, fiascoes, heroes, indigoes, innuendoes, 
jingoes, mangoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes, mottoes, 

i See Exercises 629-631. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



INFLECTIONAL ENDINGS 29 

mulattoes, negroes, noes (" the ayes and noes"), potatoes, 
tomatoes, viragoes, volcanoes. 

Some add only s; e.g., albinos, altos, bagnios, bam- 
binos, bamboos, banjos, bassos, boleros, bolos, bravos, 
bronchos, burros, cameos, cantos, casinos, cellos, chromos, 
cuckoos, curculios, curios, diclos, dominos (costume), 
duos, dynamos, Eskimos, farragos, fiascos, Filipinos, 
folios, guanos, gumbos, hallos, halos, imbroglios, in- 
taglios, largos, lassos, limbos; lingos, llanos, medinos, 
mementos, merinos, Moros, mottos, nuncios, octavos, 
olios, peccadillos, pesos, pianos, piccolos, pimentos, 
pimlicos, jjortfoiios, provisos, punctilios, quartos, 
sagos, scdvos, seraglios, shakos, silos, solos, sopranos, 
stilettos, tallyhos, taros, tobaccos, torsos, tremolos, trios, 
typos, tyros, zeros. 

As to the plural of proper 1 nouns ending in o, see Rule 
76. 

76. All proper 1 nouns, including those ending in a Plural of 
vowel, 1 form the plural by adding s if the plural has no ^^f s r 
extra syllable; e.g., "the three Marys," "the Harrys 

and the Percys," "the Othellos of modern times." All 
proper nouns ending in silent e form the plural by add- 
ing s; e.g., "the four Georges," "the Stones," "the 
Whites." Proper nouns ending in a consonant 1 form the 
plural by adding es if the plural has an extra syllable ; 
e.g., "the Rogerses," " the Waterses," " the Charleses." 
(The plurals of proper names of the last class are often 
improperly formed by adding 's. See Rule 490.) 

77. (a) Verbs ending in a consonant add es, to make Present 

the present 1 third singular form, only when that form has s ing U i ars 

an extra syllable ; when it has no extra syllable, they add in * and es: 

only s. Thus : miss, misses ; proclaim, proclaims. Final 

consonant 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



30 



SPELLING 



Final 
w or y 
preceded 
by vowel 



(b) Verbs ending in ay, ey, oy, and in aw, ew, ow 
form the present third singular by adding s \ e.g., dis- 
plays, says, obeys, enjoys, saws, sews, rows. 



The end- 
ing ful 

The end- 
ing ous 



Endings 
el and le 



Stem Terminations 1 

78. The adjective suffix in such words as useful, 
beautiful, careful should be spelled with one I. 

79. The adjective suffix in such words as studious, 
humorous, glorious should be spelled ous, not us. 

80. (a) Words ending in el are few, compared with 
those ending in le. In most of those ending in el the 
final syllable is preceded by v, m, or n. Thus : bevel, 
drivel, gavel, gravel, hovel, level, navel, novel, ravel, 
revel, dishevel, shrivel, snivel, travel, camel, enamel, 
trammel, channel, flannel, funnel, kennel, panel, tun- 
nel, babel, label, libel, angel, chapel, model, vessel, 
counsel, tassel, chisel, hazel, weazel, quarrel, nickel, 
pickerel, mantel (a chimney-piece). 

But able, amble, addle, axle, angle, ankle, apple, 
Bible, babble, bramble, buckle, battle, bottle, bubble, 
bridle, baffle, cable, cradle, coddle, crackle, candle, castle, 
dandle, dazzle, dawdle, double, dwindle, eagle, edible, 
feeble, fable, fondle, fickle, gable, giggle, goggle, gamble, 
handle, huddle, ingle, icicle, juggle, jangle, jingle, 
knuckle, ladle, marble, muddle, maple, measles, middle, 
noble, nibble, ogle, paddle, poodle, people, possible, 
quibble, riddle, rabble, rifle, ripple, settle, stable, sable, 
sample, staple, subtle, saddle, suckle, stumble, sparkle, 
sprinkle, sickle, table, tumble, tackle, title, topple, trem- 
ble, trestle, trifle, tickle, trickle, twinkle, uncle, waddle, 
wrinkle, wrestle, whistle, mantle (garment). 

i See Exercises 632-635. 



STEM TERMINATIONS 



31 



(b) In forming the present third singular, the parti- Incorrect 



insertion 



cipie, aim me j 


JclM Ul cl \VIV 


timing in lv, uu 1 


LUU llibCil ctll - 


e before the I. 






before I 


Right : 


Right : 


Right : 


Right: 


handle 


handles 


handling 


handled 


enable 


enables 


enabling 


enabled 


ladle 


ladles 


ladling 


ladled 


settle 


settles 


settling 


settled 


saddle 


saddles 


saddling 


saddled 


tremble 


trembles 


trembling 


trembled 


twinkle 


twinkles 


twinkling 


twinkled 



81. Note that alley, hockey, jockey, and shinney end Alley etc. 
in ey. 

Prefixes x 

82-. In also, always, already, almost, altogether Always, 
the I is single. 83. But all right is two separate f{ c eady ' 
words, all spelled with two Vs. 

There is no such word as " alright " or " allright." 



Right 
Right 
Right 



The furnace is all right. 

" Harness the horse." — " All right ; I will." 

" Don't forget." — " All right ; I won't." 



84. In describe, description, desire, despair, despise, Describe 
destroy, and destruction the first syllable is de. etc ' 



Similar Words often Confounded 2 



85. Except (verb) means to exclude ; as " He alone Accept 



was excepted from the amnesty." Except (preposition) 
means with the exception {i.e., exclusion) of; as "All's 
lost except honor." Except is not to be confused with 
accept, which means to receive. 



86. Regarding advise, advice, 



devise, and device re- 



member the following formula : 
1 See Exercises 635, 661. 



2 See Exercises 636-660. 



and except 



Advice, 
advise, 
device, 
devise 



32 



SPELLING 



Nouns 
advice 
device 



Verbs 
advise 
devise 



Affect and 
effect 



87. Effect is both a noun 1 and a verb. 1 As a noun 
it means result (e.g., " The drug had a fatal effect ") or 
influence (e.g., " His companionship has a bad effect on 
you "). As a verb it means to produce, to accomplish 
(e.g., " He effected a reconciliation "). 

Affect is a verb L only. It means to influence (e.g., 
" Trade would be seriously affected by a war "). Affect 
is a verb only; there is no noun " affect." 

WRONG : The music had a soothing affect. [The writer 
means a soothing influence; and affect means in- 
fluence. But affect is a verb. The writer should use 
the noun that means influence.'] 

Eight : The music had a soothing effect. 

Alreadij 88. Already, which is an adverb, 1 is not to be con- 

all ready founded with all ready, which is an adjective 1 preceded 
by all. 

Right : He has already finished it. [" Already " modi- 
fies " finished."] 

Right : We are all ready to help ; just say the word. 
[ u All " is in apposition with "we" ; " ready" is a 
predicate adjective completing " are."] 

Right : Your car is all ready, sir. [" Ready" is apred- 



Lead and 
led 



icate adjective completing "is' 



1 all" is here (as 



often) an adverb ( = quite, entirely) modifying the 

adjective "ready."] 
Right : Is this shirt all ready to wear ? 
Right : Already his doom was sealed. 
Right : All ready ! Get set ! Go ! 

89. The principal parts l of the verb to lead are lead, 
led, led. 

Right : Lead me. All right ; I will lead you. 
1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



WORDS OFTEN CONFOUNDED 33 

Right : He led me. Did you notice how he led the 

orchestra ? I thought he led it very well. 
Right : They were led into a dark room. Who has led 

you here ? I thought it genuine, but I see I was 

misled. 

90. Lose is a verb 1 (e.g., "I feared I should lose the Lose and 
game. In losing it I should lose the championship"). e 
Loose is an adjective x (e.g., " The cow is loose "). 

91. In modern prose (the rule does not hold in and oh 
poetry) the spellings and oh of the common inter- 
jection are employed as follows : is used when the 
interjection serves as the poetic or archaic sign of direct 
address ; l as "I am come, Caesar," " ye spirits of our 
fathers," " God, we pray Thee," " I fear for thee, my 
country." When the interjection is used in any other 

way than as the sign of direct address, — that is, in the 
great majority of cases, — it is spelled oh; e.g., " Oh no, 
it is no trouble," "Oh! you ought not to do that," "My 
child! oh, my child!" "I will do it — and oh, by the 
way, where's the key ? " 92. should always be capi- 
talized, and, when used in the manner stated above, 
should not be followed by any mark of punctuation. Oh 
is not capitalized except at the beginning of a sentence, 
and may be followed by an exclamation point, a period, a 
comma, or no mark at all. 

93. Of the two words principal and principle it may Principal 
be noticed that the one which contains a is an adjec- ™>*a»te 
tive, 1 and the other a noun. 1 Of two apparent excep- 
tions to this rule, it should also be noticed that principal 
meaning a school officer or other person is an adjective 
modifying a noun (officer or party) understood, and that 
principal as distinguished from interest is an adjective 
modifying sum. understood. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



34 



SPELLING 



Eight : A moral principle is involved here. 
Right : The mint is our principal public building. 
Right : The interest is due now ; the principal need not 

be paid until July. 
Right : Mr. Vane is the principal of our school. 
Right : He is only a tool ; he does as his principal 

directs. 
Right : The principals in this little drama were Ned and 

Harry. 
Right : A principle is a general rule or a general truth. 

Precede, 94. In precede, recede, concede, intercede, and pro- 

proceed cedure the e of the second syllable is single. In pro- 
ceed, exceed, and succeed the e of the second syllable is 
doubled. 



Meaning 
of proceed 
and pre- 
cede 



Receive 
etc. 



Too 



To 



95. Proceed is intransitive; 1 it means to go forward 
(e.g., "Let us proceed"). Precede is transitive x — must 
have an object expressed or implied; it means to go 
before (something), as "She preceded me" (i.e., went be- 
fore me), "On Sunday he told me what he had done on 
the preceding day" (i.e., on the day going before the 
Sunday mentioned). 

96. In case of doubt whether to use the digraph ei or 
the digraph ie in words like receive and believe, the 
question may be determined by reference to the word 
Celia. If c precedes the digraph, e follows the c, as in 
Celia. Thus : receive, receipt, conceive, conceit, per- 
ceive, deceive. If I precedes the digraph, i follows the I, 
as in Celia. Thus : believe, belief, relieve, relief. 

97. Too is an adverb ; x it means excessively (e.g., "It 
is too sour") or also (e.g., "I too am coming," "I want 
some paper — and a stamp too"). 

To is a preposition 1 (e.g., "Come to me," "I don't 
object to it," "It can't be objected to"), and also the sign 
of the infinitive 1 (e.g., "Do you want to ride?" "I don't 
want to"). 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



35 



Two is a number — the number 2. 

98. In each of the words accommodate, assassin, em- Accom- 

mod ' 
etc. 



Two 



barrass, occurrence, possess, possessioyi there are two ? 



doubled consonants. 

99. It is a misspelling to write a foreign word with- 
out the accent marks that properly belong to it, or with 
accent marks that do not belong to it, or with accent 
marks misplaced. Note the accent in the following 
words : d la carte, role, fete, nee, charge d'affaires, 
confrere, coup cVetat, table d'hote, tete-a-tete, hotel 
de ville, vis-a-vis. 

" Is our t6 tl rjv uvea a failure, or is Kobert Browning 
played out ? " 

100. Do not misspell words by the careless omission 
of the last letters. Some people habitually write " Strang " 
for strange, " the " for they, " show " for shown, " know " 
for known, " larg " for large. 



Accent 
marks on 
foreign 
words 



Omission 
of final 
letters 



A List of Words that are often Misspelled 

101. The following list is composed chiefly of common, A list of 
everyday words which are often misspelled. With many ^^t are 
of these are grouped — for the sake of comparison and often mis- 
distinction — related words, words not often misspelled, spe e 
and words of different derivation commonly confused with 
them. The reader is advised to look through the list, to 
mark words which he finds he has been in the habit of 
misspelling, and to learn the spelling of those words. By 
doing this, the reader can eliminate orthographic faults 
from his writing, to a greater or less degree. But the 
list is intended to be suggestive rather than complete. 
Though it may help many readers considerably in im- 
proving their spelling, yet in general the best means to 
this end are (1) constant observation, (2) the persistent 



36 



SPELLING 



habit of referring to a dictionary concerning words about 
which one is in doubt, and (3) mastery of the general 
rules of spelling given above. 



abbreviation 




accuse 


abhorrence 52 




accusing 61 


absence 




accustom 


absent 




accustoms 77 


absorb 
absorbs 77 




achieve 
achievement 63 


absorption. Note 


the pro- 


acknowledge 


nunciation. 




acknowledgment (preferable 


abundant 




to acknowledgement. 
See 63, end). 


abuse 






abusing 61 




acquaint 


accelerate 




acquaintance 


accent 
accents 73, 77 




acquire 
acquiring 61 

across 


accept (receive) 85 






accepts 77 




actual 


except (exclude 


, aside 


actually 70 


from) 85 




acute 


access (admittance) 




addition 


excess (greater 
accessible 


amount) 


additionally 71 


accident 




address 


accidentally 71 




adequate 


accommodate 98 




adequately 63 


accompany 




adjacent 


accompanying 68 




adjoin 


accompaniment 66 




adjoins 77 


accomplish 




adjust 


according 




adjusts 77 


accordingly 




admissible 


account 




admit 
admits 59 


accumulate 




admitted 53 


accurate 




admitting 53 


accurately 63 




admittance 52 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



37 



' advantage 
advantageous 62 

adventure 
adventurous 61 

advice (noun) 86 
advise (verb) 86 
adviser 

JEneid 

affect (verb, to influence) 87 
effect (verb, to produce) 87 
effect (noun, result) 87 
(There is no noun affect) . 

affection 

affliction 

afraid 



aghast 

agreeable 

aisle (in church) 
isle (island) 

all right (There is no such 
word as "alright" or 
"allright.") 83 

alley (small street) 81 
alleys 64 

ally (confederate) 
allies 64 

allow 
allows 77 b 

allude 
allusion 

almost 82 

along 

already 82, 88 
all ready 88 

altar (shrine) 
alter (change) 



altogether 82 

alumna (feminine singular) 
alumnae (feminine plural) 
alumnus (masculine singular) 
alumni (masculine plural) 

always 82 

amateur 

amicable 

amiable 

ammonia 

among 

amount 

amuse 
amusing 61 
amusement 63 

analysis 
analyze 

angel (celestial being) 
angelic 

angle (corner) 

ankle 

announce 
announcing 61 
announcement 63 

annoy 
annoys 77 b 

annual 
annually 70 

answer 
answers 73, 77 

apart 
apartment 

apiece 129 

Apollo 
Apollinaris 



38 


SPELLING 


apology 


article 


apologize 


artistic 


appall 


artistically 72 


apparatus 


ascend 




ascends 77 


apparent 


ascent 


appeal 


assassin 


appeals 77 


assassinate 


appear 


assist 


appears 77 


assists 77 


appearance 


assistance 


appetite 


associate 


applaud 


association 


applause 


athlete. Note the pronunci- 


apply 


ation. Two syllables. 


applies 65 


athletic 


applied 65 


athletics 


appoint 


attack (present) 


appoints 77 


attacked (past) 


appreciate 


attempt 


approach 


attempts 73, 77 


approve 


attendance 


approving 61 


autobiography 


approximate 


automobile 


approximately 63 






autumn 


argue 


autumnal 


arguing 61 




argument 63, end 


auxiliary. Note the pronun- 


arise 
arising 61 


ciation, 
auxiliaries 64 


arithmetic 


available 


around 


avenue 


arouse 


awful 63, end ; 78 


arrange 


awfully 70 


arranging 61 


awkward 


arrangement 63 




arrive 
arriving 61 


bachelor 


arrival 61 


balance 






WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



89 



balloon 


bet 


banana 


betted (or bet) 53 
betting 53 


Baptist. Note the pronunci- 
ation. 


bicycle 


baptize 


boarder (one who boards) 


bare 


border (edge) 


barely 63 


born ( u I was born in 1890 ") 


bat 


borne ("borne by the 


batted 53 


wind 1 '; " She has borne 


batting 53 


a son") 


batter 52 


boundary 


beauty 


boundaries 64 


beautiful 00, 78 




beautifully 70 


bouquet. Note the pronun- 
ciation. 


become 




becoming 61 


brace 


bed 


bracing 61 


bedding 53 


bridal (nuptial) 


beg 


bridle (for a horse) 


begged 53 


Britain ) ,.. , N 
Britannia [ ( the count ^ 


begging 53 


beggar 52 


Briton (a native) 


begin 


bud 


beginning 53 


budding 53 


behave 
behaving 61 


bulletin 


behavior 


buoy 


belief 96 


buoyant 


believe 96 


bureau 


believing 61 






burglar 


beneficial 




beneficially 70 


bury 




buries 65 


benefit 


buried 65 


benefited 58 




benefiting 58 


bus (omnibus) 


berth (bed) 


Buss means kiss. 


birth (beginning of life) 


busy 


besiege 


business 66 


besieging 61 


button 



40 SPELLING 


Caesar 


change 




changing 61 


calendar 


changeable 62 


campaign 


channel 80 


canvas {cloth) 


character 


canvass (revieiv) 


characteristic 


capital (city) 


characteristically 72 


capitol (building) 


chauffeur 


captain 


chemistry 


care 


chief 


caring 61 


chieftain 


careful 63 




careless 63 


children 


career 


chimney 




chimneys 64 


carry- 




carriage 66 

(Cf. marry, marri-age.) 


choose 1 , , N 
choosing 61 } (Present) 


carries 65 


chose 1 
chosen }P ast 


carried 65 


carrying 68 






chord (of music) 


casual 


cord (string) 


casually 70 




casualty. Note the pronun- 


chorus 


ciation. 


Christian 


cease 


cigarette 


ceaseless 63 




ceasing 61 


Cincinnati 


ceiling 


city 




cities 64 


cemetery (graveyard) 


civil 
civilization 


seminary (school) 


century 
centuries 64 


clamber 




' clambers 77 


ceremony 


close 


ceremonies 64 


closing 61 


certain 


closely 63 


certainly 


closet 


certainty 


clothes (garments) 


champagne 


cloths (kinds of cloth) 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



41 



coalesce 
coalescing 61 

coarse {not fine) 
course (path, series) 

coherence 
coherent 

collar 

college 

colonel 

color 

colossal 
colossus 
Colosseum or Coliseum 

combat 
combatant 58 
combated 58 
combating 58 

come 
coming 61 

comma 

command 

commence 
commencing 61 
commencement 63 

comment 

commission 
commit 
committed 53 
committing 53 
committee 52 

commodious 79 



comparative 
comparatively 63 

compare 
comparing 61 



complement 
part) 



(c o mp leting 



compliment (pleasing speech) 
complimentary (gracious) 

complete 
completing 61 
completely 63 

comrade 
comradeship 63 

conceit 96 
conceive 96 
conceiving 61 

conciliate 

condition 

confectionery (candy) 

confer 
confers 77 
conferred 53 
conferring 53 
conference 57 

confidant (noun) 
confidence 
confident (adjective) 

confuse 
confusing 61 

connect 
connects 77 
connection 

connoisseur 

conscientious 
conscientiousness 

conscious 
consciousness 

consider 
considers 77 

consistent 

constant 

contagious 

containing 



42 



SPELLING 



contemptible {worthy of 

scorn) 
contemptuous {scornful) 

continual 
continually 70 

control 
controlled 53 
controlling 53 
controllable 52 

convenient 

cool 
coolly 70 

copy 

copied 65 
copies 64, 65 

corduroy 

corner 

corps {squad) 
corpse {dead body) 

correspondence 
correspondent 

costume {dress) 
custom {manner) 

council (noun only, assembly) 
councilor {member of a coun- 
cil) 

counsel (noun, legal advice, 

adviser) 
counsel (verb, to advise) 
counselor {adviser) 

counterfeit 

country 
countries 64 

courage 
courageous 62 

courteous 
courtesy 
courtesies 64 



creator 

creep 
crept 

creamery 
creameries 64 

crescent 

crib 

cribbed 53 
cribbing 53 

cry 

cries 64, 65 

cried 65 

crisis (singular) 
crises (plural) 

critic 
criticism 
criticize 
criticizing 61 

crowd 

crystal 

curious 79 
curiosity. Cf. — 

generous 
generosity 

impetuous 
impetuosity 

pompous 
pomposity 

viscous 
viscosity 

curriculum 

custom. See costume, 

cut 
cutting 53 



daily 
dairy 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



43 



damage 
damaging 61 

De Quincey 

deaf 
deafen 

dealt 

deceased (dead) 
diseased (ill) 

deceit 96 
deceive 96 
deceiving 61 

deep 
depth 

demeanor 

demoralize 
demoralizing 61 

dense 

dependence 
dependent (adjective) 
dependant (noun) 

derrick 

descend 
descends 77 
descent 

describe 84 
describing 61 
description 84 

desert (waste place) 
dessert (food) 

desire 84 
desiring 61 
desirable 61 

despair 84 
desperate 

despise 84 
despising 61 

destroy 84 
destroys 776 
destruction 84 



develop (preferable to devel- 
op e) 

device (noun) 86 
-devise (verb) 86 
devising 61 

diamond 

diary (daily record) 
dairy (milk room) 

die 
dying 67 

differ 
differs 77 

difference 
different 

difficult 
difficulty 
difficulties 64 

diffuse 
diffusing 61 

dig 
digging 53 

dilapidated 

diminish 

dine 

dining 61 
dining room 61 

diphtheria. Note the pro- 
nunciation 

diphthong 

direct 
directs 77 

disappear (dis + appear) 

disappoint (dis + appoint) 

disagreeable 

disaster 
disastrous 



44 


SPELLING 


discern 


drown \ 


discerns 77 


drowns 77 > (present) 




• drowning J 


discipline 


drowned (past) 


discourage 


drudgery 


discouraging 61 






drunkenness 69 


disease 




diseased. See deceased. 


dual (twofold) 


dispatch, or despatch 


duel (fight) 


display- 


duly 63, end 


displays 77 &, 64 


- 


dissect 


earnest 


dissipate 


ecstasy 


distinction 


effect 87 


distinguish 


effeminate 


distract 


effervesce 


distracts 77 


effervescent 


distraction 






eight 


distribute 


eighth 


distributing 61 


eighths 


dive (present) 


elaborate 


dived (past) 


elaborately 63 


diving 61 


elapse 


divide 


elapsing 61 


dividing 61 


elicit (to draw out) 


division 


Illicit means unlawful 


divine (adjective) 


eligible 


doctor 


eliminate 


dormitory 


Eliot, George 


dormitories 64 


ellipse 


doubt 


elliptical 


drag 
dragged 53 


embarrass 98 


embarrassment 98 


dragging 53 


enable 80 


drop 
dropped 53 


enables 80& 


enabling 61, 80& 


dropping 53 


endeavor 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



45 



enemy 
enemies 04 

energetic 
energetically 72 

engine 
engineer 

enormous 

enough 

entertain 
entertains 77 
entertaining 

entire 
entirely 63 

entrance 

equal 
equals 77 
equally 70 

equation 

equivalent 

ere (before; e.g., u ere the 
snow falls ") 
e'er (abbreviation of ever) 

erect 
erects 77 

especial 
especially 70 

etc. 143/ 

eventful 78 

exaggerate 
exaggerating 61 

excellence 
excellent 

except 85 
exception 
exceptionally 71 

excess. See access. 
excessive 
excessively 63 



excite 
exciting 61 
excitable 61 

exclaim 

exclaims 77 
exclamation 

excuse 
excusing 61 
excusable 61 

exercise 
exercising 61 

exhaust 
exhausts 77 

exhibit 
exhibition 

exhilarate 
exhilarating 61 

exhort 

exist 
exists 77 
existence 

experience 

experiment 

explain 
explains 77 
explanation 

explicit 
explicitly 

extreme 
extremely 63 
extremity 

face 
facing 61 

facilitate 
facilitating 61 
facility 

faculty 
faculties 64 



46 



SPELLING 



fallacious 
fallacy 
fallacies 64 

falter 
falters 77 

familiar 

family 
families 64 

fancy 
fancies 64 

fantastic 
fantastically 72 

fascinate 
fascinating 61 

fatigue 
fatiguing 61 

February. Note the pro- 
nunciation. 

feed (present) 
fed (past) 

fertile 

few 

fictitious 

field 

fiend 

fire 

firing 61 
fiery 

filthy 
filthiness 66 

final 
finally 70 

fly 

flies 64, 65 

flog 

flogged 53 
flogging 53 

flourish 



foliage 

forbid 

forbidding 53 
forbidden 54 

forcible 
forcibly 61 

forebode 
foreboding 61 

forehead 

foreign 

foremost 

forest 

forfeit 

formally (ceremoniously) 

formerly (at a former time) 

formidable 

forty. But — 

four 

fourteen 

fourth 

forth (forward) 
fourth (4th) 

forward 

frantic 
frantically 72 

fraternity 
fraternities 64 

freshman (noun, singular) 
freshmen (noun, plural) 
freshman (adjective) 

friend 

fulfill or fulfil 
fulfilled 53 

fundamental 
fundamentally 70 

furniture 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



47 



garden 






graceful 78 


gardener 






gracefully 70 


gas 






grammar 


gases (exception 


to 


52) 


grammatical 


gauge (e.#., narrow 


gauge) 


grandeur 


general 






grief 


generally 70 






grievous. Note the pronun 
ciation. 


generous 








generosity. See 


cu 


riosity. 


grocery 
groceries 64 


gentleman (singular) 




gentlemen (plural) 




group 








groups 73 


geometry 








get 

getting §6 






guarantee 






guard 








guardian 


ghastly 








gh'astliness 66 






gymnasium 


ghost 








ghostliness 66 






handicap 
handicapped 


give 
giving 61 






handicapping 
handkerchief 


glimpse 








glimpsing 61 






handle 80 
handles 80 b 


gloomy 






handled 80 b 


gloominess 66 






handling 61, 80 b 


glorious 79 






handsome 


goal 






happen 


god 






happens 77 


goddess 52 






happy 
happily 66 


gorgeous 






happiness 66 


govern 






harass 


governs 77 
government 






haughty 
haughtiness 66 


governor 








grab 






haul (drag) 


grabs 77 






have 


grabbed 53 






haven't 493 


grabbing 53 






having 61 



48 



SPELLING 



Hawthorne 

hear (verb) 
hears 77 
here (adverb) 

heavy 
heavily 66 
heaviness 66 

heed 
heeds 77 

height. Note the pronuncia- 
tion. 

heinous. Note the pronun- 
ciation. 

hero 
heroes 75 

hide 

hiding 61 
hidden 

hinder 
hinders 77 
hindrance 

his 

hit 
hitting 53 

hockey 81 

holiday 

honor 
honorable 

hop- 
hopping 53 

hope 

hoping 61 
hopeful 63 
hopeless 63 

hospital 

household 

huge 



hum 

hummed 53 
humming 53 

human {of mankind) 

humane {merciful) 

humor 
humorous 79 

hundred 

hundredth 

hundredths 

hurry 
hurried 65 
hurries 65 
hurrying 68 

hypocrisy 
hyprocrite 



ice 

icy 61 
icily 66 
icicle 

•identical 
identically 70 
identity 

ignorance 
ignorant 

Iliad 

imagine 
imagining 61 
imagination 

imitate 
imitating 61 
imitation 

immediate 
immediately 63 

immense 
immensely 63 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



49 



immovable 61 

impetuous 

impetuosity. See curiosity. 

impose 
imposing 61 

impossible 

impromptu 

improve 
improving 61 
improvement 63 

impudence 
impudent 

impulsive 
impulsiveness 63 

incident (occurrence) 

Incidence means the zoay a 

thing falls or strikes — a 

scientific term, 
incidentally 71 

include 
including 61 

incorrigible 

incredible 
incredibly 61 

incur 
incurs 77 
incurred 53 
incurring 53 

independence 
independent 

indestructible 

indictment 

indispensable 

indulge 
indulging 61 

ineligible 



infer 
infers 77 
inferred 53 
inferring 53 
inference 57 

infinite 
infinitely 63 
infinitive 

ingenious (clever) 
ingenuous (frank) 

innocence 
innocent 

insight 

instantaneous 79 

instruction 

intelligence 
intelligent 

intention 
intentionally 71 

interrupt 
interrupts 77 

intimate 
intimately 63 

invariable 
invariably 61 

invite 
inviting 61 
invitation 

irregular 

irrelevant. Note the pronun- 
ciation. 

irreparable 

irresistible 
irresistibly 

irrigate 
irrigating 61 

island 

itself 126 



50 






SPELLING 


job (ivork) 
jobs 73 








leak {escape) 
'leaks 73, 77 


jockey 81 
jockeys 64 

joyful 78 
joyfully 70 








led (past tense of lead) 89 

legible 

leisure 


judgment (pre 
judgement. 

kerosene 


ferabl* 
See 63, 


B tO 

end) 


let 
letting 53 

lie 
lying 67 


kindergarten, 
nunciation, 

knew 


Note the 


j pro- 


lieutenant 

life (noun, singular) 
lives (plural) 74 


know 
knows 77b 
known 
knowledge 

knuckle 80 
knuckles 805 
knuckled 806 








lightning (noun) 

linen 

live (verb and adjective) 

living 61 

lively 63 

liveliness 

livelihood 66 


La Follette 

labor 
laboratory 
laboratories 64 








load 

loads 73, 77 

loaf 
loaves 74 


lady 
ladies 64 








lone 

lonely 63 
loneliness 66 


large 
largely 63 

later {subsequent) 
latter ( " the former, 
ter") 

lawn 

lay 

laid. Cf. pay, paid. 

leaf 
leaves 74 


the lat- 


loose (adjective) 90 
lose (verb) 90 
losing 61 

loud 
louder 

loyal 

loyalty. Cf. royal, royalty. 

luxury 
luxuries 64 
luxurious 79 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



51 



Macaulay 

magazine 

magnificent 

maintain 
maintains 77 
maintenance 

majestic 
majestically 72 

make 
making 61 

mammoth 

manage 
managing 61 
management 63 

maneuver 

manner 
manners 73 

manufactory. Note the pro- 
nunciation, 
manufactories 64 
manufacture 
manufacturer 

many 
manifold 66 

marry 

marriage 66. Cf. carry, car- 
riage. 
marries 65 
married 65 

material 

mathematics 

mattress or matress 

meant 

measles 

medicine 

meet (present) 
meets 77 
met (past) 



mercantile 

merchant 

mere 
merely 63 

messenger 

metal (e.g., iron) 
mettle (spirit) 

millionaire 

mimic 

mimicked 60 
mimicking 60 

miniature. Note the pro- 
nunciation. 

minute (adjective) 
minute (noun) 

miscellaneous 79 

mischievous. Note the pro- 
nunciation. 

moment 
momentary 
momentarily 66 

momentous 79 

monotonous 79 
monotony 

month 
monthly 
monthlies 64 

mortgage 

mosquito 
mosquitoes 75 

mountain 
mountainous 

much 

murmur 
murmurs 77 

muscle 



52 SPELLING 


mustache or moustache 


notice 




noticing 61 


mystery- 


noticeable 62 


mysteries 64 




mysterious 79 


nourish 


mystify 


nowadays 129 


mystified 65 


nurse 


mystifies 65 




myth 




mythology 


oblige 


mythical 


obliging 61 




obstacle 


naphtha. Note the pronun- 
ciation. 


occasion 
occasional 
occasionally 71 


narrative 






occupy 


nasturtium 


occupies 65 


natural 


occupied 65 


naturally 70 


occupation 




occur 


navigate 


occurs 77 


navigating 61 


occurred 53 


navigable 


occurring 53 


necessary 


occurrence 52 


necessaries 64 


odor 


necessarily 66 


odorous 79 


necessity 




necessities 66 


Odyssey 


need 


off 


needs 73, 77 ♦ 


offer 


neither 


offers 77 




offered 58 


nervous 79 






officer 


Niagara 


officers 73 


nickel 80 


official 


nine 


officially 70 


nineteen 


omit 


ninety 


omitted 53 


ninetieth 


omitting 53 


But ninth 


omission 


nonsense 


oneself 126 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



53 



open 


participle (noun) 


opens 77 


participial (adjective) 


operate 


particle 


operating 51 


particular 


operation 


particularly 


opponent 


partner. Note the pronunci- 


opportune 


ation. 


opportunity 
opportunities 64 


passed (verb, past tense of 
pass) 


oppose 


past (adjective, adverb, and 


opposing 51 


preposition) 


opposition 


passenger 


orator 


passengers 73 


ordinary 


pastime 


ordinarily 66 


pay 


origin 


paid. Cf. lay, laid. 


original 


pamphlet 


originally 70 






peace 


outrage 


peaceable 62 


outrageous 62 






peculiar 


owing 61 


peddle 80 




peddles 806 




peddling 61, 806 


paddle 80 


peddler, pedler, or pedlar 


paddles 806 


pennant 


paddling 61, 806 
paddled 806 


people 


parallel 


perceive 96 
perceiving 61 


paralysis 


perform. Note the pronun- 


paralyze 


ciation. 


paralyzing 61 


performs 77 


parent 


perhaps. Note the pronun- 


parentage 


ciation. 


parenthesis (singular) 


perilous 79 


parentheses (plural) 


permissible 


parenthetic 






persevere 


partial 


persevering 61 


partially 70 


perseverance 



54 



SPELLING 



perspire 
perspiring 61 

perspiration. Note the pro- 
nunciation. 

persuade 
persuading 61 
persuasion 

pertain. Note the pronunci- 
ation 
pertains 77 
pertaining 

pervade 
pervading 61 

phenomenon (singular) 
phenomena (plural) 

Philip (given name) 
Philippines. But Filipino 

phrase 

physical 
physically 70 

physician 

physics 

pickerel 

picnic 

picnicked 60 
picnicking 60 
picnicker 60 

picturesque 

piece 

pity 

pitiful 66 . 
pitiless 66 

place 
placing 61 

plague 
plaguing 61 

plan 

planned 53 
planning 63 



plain (adjective, clear, 

simple) 
plain (noun, flat region) 
plane (adjective, flat) 
plane (noun, geometric 

term ; carpenter's tool) 

pleasant 

plenty 
plentiful 66 

poison 
poisonous 79 

ponderous 79 

pony 
ponies 64 

porch 

possess 98 
possesses 98 
possessed 98 
possessing 98 
possession 98 

possible 
possibly 61 
possibility 
possibilities 64 

potato 
potatoes 75 

practical 
practically 70 

practice (noun and verb) 
Practise is permissible 
for the verb only. 

prairie 

precede 94 
preceding 61 

precious 

prefer 
prefers 77 
preferred 53 
preferring 53 
preferable 57 
preference 57 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



55 



prejudice 


put 


prepare 


putting 53 


preparing 61 


puzzle 80 


preparation 


puzzles 80 b 


Presbyterian 


puzzling 61, 80 b 


prevalent 






quality 


principal 93 


qualities 64 


principally 70 






quantity 


principle 93 


quantities 64 


prison 


quarrel 


prisoner 


quarrels 73, 77 


privilege 


quiet (still) 


probable 


quite (entirely) 


probably 61 


quit 


proceed 91 


quit or quitted 53 


procedure 94 


quitting 53 


professor (pro -f fessor) 


quiz 


profession 


quizzes 52 


professional 




promontory 


rake 
raking 61 


propel 




propels 77 


rapid 


propelled 53 


rapidly 


propelling 53 
propeller 52 


ready 
readiness 66 


propose 


readily 66 


proposing 61 


real 


proposal 61 


really 70 


prove 


reality 


proving 61 


realities 64 • 


pumpkin. Note the pronun- 


rebel 


ciation. 


rebels 77 


purify 


rebelled 53 


purines 65 


rebelling 53 


purified 65 


rebellion 


purifying 68 


rebut 


pursue 


rebutted 53 


pursuing 61 


rebutting 53 


pursuit 


rebuttal 52 



56 



SPELLING 



receive 96 
receiving 61 
receipt 96 

receptacle 

recite 
reciting 61 
recitation 

recognize. Note 

nunciation. 
recognizing 61 

recollect 
recollection 

recommend 

red 
reddish 56 

refer 
refers 77 
referred 53 
referring 53 
reference 57 

refuse 
refusing 61 
refusal 61 

regard 

regret 

regretted 53 
regretting 53 
regretful 59 

regular 
regularly 

reign (rule) 
rein (of a bridle) 

relate 
relating 61 

relative 
relatively 63 

relief 96 
relieve 96 
relieving 61 



the pro- 



religion 
religious 

remember 
remembers 77 
remembrance 

repair 

repairs 73, 77 
reparation 

repeat 
repeats 77 
repetition 



responsibility 
responsible 

restaurant 

rhetoric 
rhetorically 

rhyme 
rhythm 

ride 

riding 61 
ridden 

ridiculous 79 

rig 

rigged 53 
rigging 53 

rip 

ripped 53 
ripping 53 

rise 
rising 61 

rivet 

riveted 58 
riveting 58 

road (noun) 
roads 73 

rode (verb) 

rope 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



57 



Roosevelt 


schedule 


rot 


scissors 


rotten 54 




rotting 53 


scrape 




scraping 61 


rough 


scythe 


ruffian. Note the pronun- 
ciation. 

• 


secret 
secretly 


run 




runs 77 


seem 


running 53 


see-ms 77 




seize 


sacrifice 


seizing 61 


sacrificing 61 


semester 


sad 


sense 


sadden 54 


sensible 


sadder 55 




saddest 55 


sentence 


safe 


separate (adjective) 


safety 63 


separately 63 




separate (verb) 


sailor 


separating 61 


salary 


separation 


salaries 64 






sergeant 


sandwich 






service 


sanitary 


serviceable 62 


Santa Claus 


set 


satisfactory 


setting 53 


satisfactorily 66 


settle 80 


satisfy 


settles 80 6 


satisfies 65 


settling 61, 80 b 


satisfied 65 


settled 80 b 


Saturday 


severe 


scandal 


severely 63 


scarce 


shed 


scarcely 63 


shedding 53 


scare 


shepherd 


scaring 61 


shine 


scene. Note the pronuncia- 


shining 61 


tion. 


shiny 61 



58 


SPELLING 


ship 


slip 


shipped 53 


slipped 53 


shipping 53 


slipping 53 


shone (past of shine) 


slippery 52 




slop 


shop 


sloppy 56 


shopped 53 


sloppiness 66 


shopping 53 




shopper 52 


slope • 




sloping 61 


shoulder 




shoulders 73 


smooth 


shrewd 


sociable 
sociably 61 


shriek 


sophomore Three syllables 


shrub 
shrubbery 52 


sought 




soul 


shuffle 80 


s 


shuffles 80 b 


source 


shuffling 61, 80 b 


sparkle 80 


shut 


sparkles 80 b 


shutting 53 


sparkled 80 b 




sparkling 61, 80 b 


siege 






species (singular) 


significant 


species (plural) 


silhouette 


specimen (singular) 




specimens (plural) 


similar. Note the pronunci- 


ation. 


spectacle 


simile 


speech. But speak. 


simultaneous 79 


spend (present) 




spent (past participle) 


since 


Spenser, Edmund 


sit 


Spencer, Herbert 


sitting 53 






split 


site (place) 


splitting 53 


skillful 78 


sprightly 


skillfully 70 


sprightliness 66 


slim 


stab 


slimmer 55 


stabbed 53 


slimmest 55 


stabbing 53 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



59 



stake (post) 


subdue 


steak (meat) 


subduing 61 


stationary (adjective) 


substance 


stationery (noun) 


substantial 


statistics 


substantially 70 


statue (monument) 


succeed 


stature (height) 


succeeds 77 


statute (law) 


success 


Stevenson, R. L. 


sudden 




suddenness 69 


stolen 






sufficient 


stone 




stony 61 


suffrage . No connection with 




suffer. 


stop 




stopped 53 


sugar 


stopping .53 


suggest 


straight (adjective) 


suit (of clothes) 


strait ("in hard straits") 


suite (of rooms) 


strange 


sulphur 


strangely 63 


sum 


strangeness 63 


summed 53 


strenuous 


summary 




summing 53 


stretch 






superintendent 


strike 




striking 61 


suppose 


strip 


supposing 61 


stripped 53 


suppress 


stripping 53 


sure 


stripe 


surely 63 


striped 


surprise. Note the pronun- 


stubborn 


ciation. 


stubbornness 69 


surprising 61 


study 


surround 


studies 64, 65 




studied 65 


suspense 


studying 68 


swim 


suburb 


swimming 53 


suburban 


syllable 



60 



SPELLING 



symmetry 
symmetrical 

synonym 
synonymous 

system 

systematic 58 
systematically 



take 
taking 61 

tear (verb) 
tears 77 



technical 
technically 



'0 



temperament. Four sylla- 
bles. 

temperature. Four sylla- 
bles. 

temporary 
temporarily 66 

tendency 
tendencies 64 

Thackeray 

than ( u greater than ") 
then ("now and then") 

their (possessive of they) 
there (" here and there ") 
there (expletive ; a e.g., u there 

is no use," "there are 

many uses") 

therefore (for that reason). 
therefor. (Cf . thereof, there- 
by, therein.) 

thermometer 

thief 
thieves 74 



thorough 
thoroughly 

those 

thousand 

thousandth 

thousandths 

threw (past tense of throw) 

through (preposition and 
adverb) 

tickle 80 
tickles 80 6 
tickled 80 & 
tickling 61 

to ( "go to bed," "I refuse 

to go") 97 
too ("Too bad !" "Me 

too!") 97 
two (2) 97 
tobacco 

toboggan 
tobogganing 58 

torture 
torturing 61 

touch 

toward 

track (mark) 
tract (area) 
tracts 73 

tragedy 
tragedies 64 

tragic 
tragically 72 

train 

trains 73, 77 
training 

tranquil 
tranquillity 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 



61 



transfer 


until. But till. Se 


transfers 77 




transferred 53 


usage 


transferring 53 


use 


travel 


using 61 


travels 77 


useful 78 


traveling 58 


usefully 70 


traveler 58 


usual 


try 


usually 70 


tries 65 




tried 65 


usurer 




usury 


trifle 80 


usurious 66 


trifles 80 b 




trifled 80 b 




trifling 61 






vaccination 


true 




truly 63, end 


vacillate 


Tuesday 


vacillating 61 


twelve 
twelfth 


vague 
vagueness 63 


tie 


valleys 64 


tying 67 


value 




valuable 61 


tyrant 


valueless 63 


tyrannic 




tyrannically 72 


variety 


tyrannous 


varieties 64 




various 


unceasing 61 


vegetable 


undoubted 


veil 


undoubtedly (not "undoubt- 


vein (blood vessel) 


ably") 


vain (adjective) 


ungainly 


vane (iveathercock) 


ungainliness 66 






vengeance 


unintentionally 71 


ventilate 


universal 


ventilation 


universally 70 


vertical 


university 


vertically 70 


universities 64 






vice 


unmistakable 61 


vicious 



62 




SPELLING 


view 




whom 


views 736, 


77b 


whose 


village 




wide 


villain 




widely 63 


visible 




width 


vision 




wield 


visitor 




win 


vital 




winning 53 


vitally 70 




withhold (with -f hold) 


volunteer 







water 

wave 
waving 61 

weak (feeble) 

week (seven days) 
weapon 
weather 
Wednesday 

weeks 73 
weekly 
weeklies 64 

weird 
where 
whereas 
whether 

whip 

whipped 53 
whipping 53 

whiz 

whizzed 53 
whizzing 53 

whole 

wholly 63, end 



women (plural) 

wonder 
wonders 77 
wonderful 78 
wonderfully 70 

wool 
woolen 

world 
worlds 73 

wrap 

wrapped 53 
wrapping 53 
wrapper 52 

write 
writer 
writing 61 
written 

wrong 



yacht 

yield 

young 

youthful 78 

you're (you are) 



COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE 
WORDS 

102. Good usage requires that in some compound and General 
derivative words the components shall be separated by ru e 
the hyphen, and that other shall be written "solid." In 
writing a word belonging to the first class, one should not, 

if one cares to write correctly, omit the hyphen ; in writ- 
ing a word of the second class, one should not use the 
hyphen ; and in writing a word of either class, one should 
not put down the components as separate words. No 
simple rule can be given for determining whether a com- 
pound or derivative word should be hyphened or written 
solid. One must learn largely from observation and from 
consulting a dictionary in doubtful cases. The following 
generalizations may be useful : 

Classes of Words to be Hyphened 1 

103. Nouns 2 composed of a noun preceded by ex Ex-mayor 
should be hyphened. (Cf. Kule 201.) etc ' 

Right: ex-president, ex-mayor, ex-senator. 

104. Most titles beginning with vice may be written Vice- 
hyphened or with their components entirely separated, president 

Right : Right : 

vice president vice-president 

vice admiral vice-admiral 

vice chancellor vice-chancellor 

vice consul vice-consul 

But viceroy and vicegerent should be written solid. 

1 See Exercise 655. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

63 



Passer-by 
etc. 



Half-mile 
etc. 



Cup-like 
etc. 



Noun plus 
adjective 



Bright- 
eyed etc. 



Eagle- 
eyed etc. 



64 COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 

105. Compound nouns 1 made up of a noun plus an 
adverb 1 should be hyphened. 

Right : passer-by, passers-by, hanger-on, hangers-on. 

106. Compound nouns 1 made up of half or quarter 
plus another noun should be hyphened. 

Right : half-hour, quarter-inch, half-mile. 
But note : 
Right : half an hour, half a mile. 

107. Extemporized adjectives 1 in like should be 
hyphened. 

Right: cup-like, rope-like, moss-like. 

108. But adjectives of this formation that are in common 
use should be written solid. 

Right : childlike, godlike, businesslike, ladylike. 

109. Most adjectives 1 made up of a noun 1 plus an 
adjective should be hyphened. 

Right : dirt-cheap, coal-black, sea-green, sky-blue, blood- 
red, honey-sweet, fire-proof, water-tight, air-tight, 
crystal-clear, wine-dark. 

110. Most adjectives 1 made up of an adjective plus a 
noun x plus d or ed should be hyphened. 

Right : bright-eyed, dark-haired, red-headed, near- 
sighted, left-handed, strong-minded, sweet-voiced, 
dark-complexioned, silver-tongued, old-fashioned, six- 
tined, three-handled. 

111. Most adjectives 1 made up of a noun 1 plus a 
noun plus d or ed should be hyphened. 

Right: eagle-eyed, bullet-headed, bull-necked, bow- 
legged, cross-eyed, pig-headed, leather-lunged. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



WORDS TO BE HYPHENED 



65 



112. Adjectives 1 composed of a monosyllabic 1 adverb * Far- 
plus a present participle * should be hyphened. reaching 

Right : far-reaching, low-lying, high -soaring, well- 
meaning, ill-smelling, loud-sounding. 

113. Adverbs in ly are not usually joined to following 
participles. 

Right : softly falling feet, steadily increasing cold. 

But see Rule 124. 

114. An expression made up of a passive participle 1 Well- 
preceded by a monosyllabic x adverb : or by before or above ^c^if at*-' 
should be hyphened when used attributively} tributive 

Right : a close-hauled ship, a well-educated man, a so- 
called reform, the above-mentioned rule, a far-fetched 
. allusion, a much-poivdered lady. 

115. But such an expression should not be hyphened Not other- 
when used otherwise than attributively. wise 

Right : an ill-arranged library. [Attributive. ] 

Right : The library is ill arranged. [Predicate 

adjective. 1 ] 
Right : The library, ill arranged and dusty, was no 

pleasure to me. [Appositive adjective. 1 ] 



116. Expressions composed of a passive participle 1 plus Worn-out 
an adverb 1 should be hyphened when used attributively, 1 tributive" 
but not otherwise. 

Right: a worn-out coat. [Attributive.] 
Right : He has worn out his coat. [Finite 1 verb.] 
Right : The coat is worn out. [Predicate 1 adjective.] 
Right : The coat, worn out as it is, is unfit to wear. 

[Appositive 1 adjective.] 
Right : a trumped-up charge, a burnt-out fire. [At- 
tributive. ] 

117. An expression composed of a numeral plus a noun Three- 
should be hyphened when used attributively. 1 tf attribu- 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



tive 



66 COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 



Self- 
possessed 
etc. 



Noun, 
adjective, 
participle, 
or gerund 
preceded 
by object 



Right: a three-inch screw, two four-cylinder engines, a 
two-thirds majority, an eight-oar boat, a seven-eighths- 
inch board, a two-hundred-horse-power engine, a five- 
hundred-page book, a seven-dollar bathing suit. 

118. Expressions consisting of a participle l preceded by 
a substantive l denoting an agent or an agency or means 
should be hyphened. Thus : 

Agent 

God-given 

heaven-sent 

a king-ridden nation 

a boss-ruled city 

a hen-pecked husband 

Agency or means 

crime-infested 

ink-stained 

tear-stained 

blood-stained 

blood-bought 

a blood-rusted key 

" The iron-bound bucket, 

the moss-covered bucket" 



self-possessed 

self-confessed 

self-appointed 

self-constituted 

worm-eaten 



water-soaked 

iron-clad 

tapestry-covered 

mud- encrusted 

silver-plated 

fur-lined 

travel-stained 

grief-stricken 



119. Expressions consisting of a noun, 1 an adjective, 1 

a participle, 1 or a gerund 1 preceded by the name of 

an object acted upon or concerned should usually be 

hyphened. Thus : 

Noun preceded by name of object acted on 

tax-collector hay-tedder 

pen- filler 



woman-hater 

piano-tuner 

football-player 

man-eater 

lion-tamer 

snake-charmer 

dog-catcher 

horse-tamer 

scissors-grinder 

self-murderer 

self-destroyer 

Zeus, the cloud-compeller 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 3G0 ff. 



meat-chopper 

germ -destroyer 

life-preserver 

self-respect 

self-control 

self-destruction 

self-slaughter 

self-effacement 

self-restraint 

self-exaltation 

sentence-structure 



WORDS TO BE HYPHENED 67 



Noun preceded by name of object concerned 

self-conceit self-importance 

self-interest self-satisfaction 

Adjective preceded by name of object concerned 

self-important heart-sick 

blood-guilty music-mad 

Participle preceded by object 

labor-saving a hope-destroying event 

fur-bearing a germ-destroying drug 

self-denying a soul-stirring symphony 

heart-rending a man-eating tiger 

Gerund preceded by object 

letter-writing money-getting 

butter-making duck-hunting 

bull-baiting trout-fishing 

120. Most compound nouns 1 and adjectives 1 made up More 



than two 
compo- 
nents 



of more than two components should be hyphened. 

Right : merry-go-round, devil-may-care, man-of-war, 
cat-o' -nine-tails, jack-o'-lanterns, will-o'-the-wisp, 
son-in-law, well-to-do, commander-in-chief, rough- 
and-tumble, catch-as-catch-can, happy-go-lucky. 
Note that nevertheless, inasmuch, nowadays, notwith- 
standing are not nouns or adjectives. (See Rule 129.) 

121. Adverbs 1 composed of fashion preceded by a Adverbs 
noun 1 or an adjective x should be hyphened. in /as non 

Right : He played the fiddle banjo-fashion. It was 
cooked Spanish- fashion. 

122. The adverbs to-day, to-night, and to-morrow To-day, 

to-night, 
to-morrow 



should be hyphened. 



123. Good-by (or good-bye) should be hyphened, Good-l 
whether used as an interjection or as a noun. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



68 COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 

Singly 124. A group of words which is to be construed as a 

construed s j n ori e p ar t of speech 1 should be hyphened when its con- 
phrases &r r ^ 

text is such that, if the words were construed separately, 

the sense might not be immediately clear. Thus : 



Words construed sepa- 
rately 

It is a matter of fact 
It is made of badger hair 
We met face to face and 
spoke heart to heart 

Hold out your right hand 
We conversed after dinner 

I observe much blood and 

thunder in the play 
An electric light 
The assembly room 
A business college 
A high school 
There is a short circuit here 

He confessed out and out 
Here is a loose leaf in the 

book 
Send me a leg of mutton 
He would be rich if he worked 
Tommy, make room for your 

uncle 



It is heavier than air 

It measures two by four 
Lean to the left a little 

We live from hand to mouth 
He mounted the horse on the 

off side 
The marriage was much 

talked of 



Whole group construed as a 
single part of speech 

A matter-of-fact statement 

A badger-hair brush 

We had a face-to-face meet- 
ing and a heart-to-heart 
talk 

He is my right-hand man 

He made an after-dinner 
speech 

A blood-and-thunder play 

Electric-light wires 

The assembly -room windows 

Business-college graduates 

A high-school graduate 

A loose wire will short-circuit 

the current 
An out-and-out confession 
A loose-leaf ledger 

A leg-of-mutton sail 

A would-be artist 

" While, treading down rose 

and ranunculus, 
You Tommy-make-room-for- 

your-uncle us." 

— Browning. 
He used a heavier-than-air 

machine 
I want three two-by-fours 
The house consists of a main 

part and a lean-to 
It is a hand-to-mouth life 
O'Malley made an off-side 

play 
A much-talked-of marriage 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



WORDS TO BE AVRITTEN SOLID 



69 



The baby is a month old 

I like black raspberries 

Do you want an alternating 

current or a continuous 

current ? 



A month-old baby 
A black-raspberry pie 
I think alternating-current 
electricity is superior to 
continuous-current elec- 
tricity 
He is an all-round man 



"We walked all round the 
town 

He has a straight back, you I like a straight-back chair 
observe 

It is provided with a knob A. knob-and-tube system is 
and tube best for this purpose 

Your kindness is never to be You have done me a never- 
forgotten to-be-forgotten favor 



Words to be Written Solid 1 

125. Most compound and derivative nouns 2 other than Nouns 

those specified in Rules 103-106, 119, and 120 should t0 !><* 

, . ,. n - i , -, . -i written 

be written solid — not hyphened, and not written with solid 

their components entirely separate. Thus : 



Right : 

childhood 
manhood 
womanhood 
brotherhood 

fellowship 

professorship 

clerkship 

goodness 
blindness 
kindness 

outburst 

outcast 

outbreak 

outlet 

outpost 

outcome 



Right : 

income 

inlet 

intake 

overcoat 
overshoe 
overflow 

undertow 
undergrowth 
underbrush 
undertaking 

offspring 

offset 

offshoot 

upstart 
upbringing 
uplift 
upshot 



i See Exercises 666-675. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



70 COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 



Nouns to 
be written 
solid 



bystander 

byway 

byword 

misspelling 

misstep 

misfortune 

misadventure 

misdemeanor 

midnight 

midday 

midsummer 

midwinter 

midshipman 

autobiography 
autograph 
automobile 
autocrat 

anteroom 
antechamber 

archbishop 
archangel 

railroad 
railway 

surname 
nickname 

forenoon 
afternoon 

grandfather 

grandmother 

forefather 

stairway 
roadway 
leeway 
runway 

twilight 

daylight 

sunlight 

moonlight 

lamplight 

jackknife 
penknife 



sailboat 

iceboat 

rowboat 

whaleboat 

lifeboat 

surfboat 

steamboat 

broomstick 
fiddlestick 
singlestick 

But walking stick 

homestead 

bedstead 

farmstead 

roadstead 

grindstone 

washtub 

bootjack 

wardrobe 

handkerchief 

nightgown 

nightshirt 

fireplace 

doorstep 

barnyard 

haymow 

bulldog 

cockfight 

cocktail 

lambkin 

pickpocket 

spendthrift 

cutthroat 

witchcraft 

farewell 

welfare 

welcome 

haphazard 

nonsense 

postscript 

pronoun 

semicolon 

superscription 

enterprise 

antidote 



WORDS TO BE WRITTEN SOLID 



71 



126. The following pronouns should be written solid — Pronouns 
not hyphened, and not written with their components t0 .!^ 
entirely separate : solid 



Right : 

myself 

thyself 

himself 

herself 

itself 

ourselves 

yourself 

yourselves 

themselves 

oneself 



Right : 

whatever 

whatsoever 

whichever 

whichsoever 

whoever 

whosoever 

whomever 

whomsoever 



Right : 

anything 

something 

nothing 

anybody "] 
everybody I pf - q9 
somebody f UI - l **' 
nobody J 



127. Most compound and derivative adjectives 1 not Adjectives 

belonging to the classes mentioned in Rules 109-119 ^J^ 

should be written solid — not hyphened, and not written solid 
with their components entirely separate. Thus : 



Right: 

upward 

downward 

backward 

forward 

homeward 

upright 
downright 

beforehand 
behindhand 

twofold 

threefold 

manifold 



Right : 

fearless 

hopeless 

bloodless 

soulless 

heartless 

helpless 

lonesome 
gruesome 
winsome 
loathsome 

steadfast 

extraordinary 

supernatural 



128. Almost all compound and derivative verbs * should Verbs 

be written solid — not hyphened, and not written with t0 I 3 ® 

. «/ j. 7 written 

their components entirely separate. Thus : solid 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 3C0 ff. 



72 COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 



Right : 

readmit 
reclaim 
recover 

transplant 
transport 

undermine 
undersell 
underestimate 
undervalue 

upbear 

upbraid 

upheave 

uphold 

uplift 

withdraw 
withhold 
withstand 

Adverbs, 129. The following adverbs, 1 prepositions, 1 and con- 

ti^s^and junctions 1 should be written solid — not hyphened, and 

con junc- no t written with their components entirely separate: 
tions to be r J r 

written 
solid 



Verbs 
to be 
written 
solid 


Right : 

counterbalan 

forebode 

foreordain 

foresee 




gainsay 




intercede 
interest 




miscalculate 
misspell 




outbid 
outdo 
outplay 
outstrip 




overcome 




overjoy 

overleap 

overthrow 



Right : 

together 

without 
within 

instead 

whenever 
wherever 
however 

nevertheless 

inasmuch 

outside 
inside 

perhaps 



Right : 

likewise 
otherwise 

apiece 

almost 

already 

although 

altogether 

always 

throughout 

somewhat 
sometimes 
somehow 

moreover 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



WRITTEN AS SEPARATE WORDS 



73 



thereafter 

thereby 

therefor. 

therein 

thereof 

thereon 

thereupon 

therewith 

furthermore 

upward 
downward 
backward 
forward 

indoors 
outdoors 

upstairs 
downstairs 



See p. 60. 



upright 
downright 

beforehand 
behindhand 

overhead 

underneath 

therefore. See p. 60. 

whereabouts 

whereas 

whereby 

whereof 

wherein 

whereupon 

notwithstanding 

nowadays 



Expressions to be Written as Separate Words * 

130. Expressions which good usage treats as groups 
of separate words — not as compound words — should 
not be hyphened or written solid. What expressions 
belong to this class one must learn largely by observa- 
tion and by consulting a dictionary in doubtful cases. 
131. Note that the following expressions should be 
written with their components entirely separated — not 
combined into compound words either by being hyphened 
or by being written solid : 



all ready 
all right 
any day 
any time 
by and by 
by the bye 
by the way 
each other 
en route 
every day 
every time 



ex officio 

in fact 

in order 

in spite 

near by 

(on the) other hand 

per cent (but percentage) 

pro tempore 

some day 

some way 



Incorrect 
com- 
pounding 



Words to 
be written 
separately 



1 See Exercises 666-668, 673, 674. 



74 COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 



Anybody, 
any one 
etc. 



A white 
and awhile 



Some time 
and 

sometime 



Any way 

and 

anyway 



132. As was stated in Rule 126, indefinite pronouns 
ending in body should be written solid. But pronominal 
expressions ending in one should not be written solid. 

Right : Right : 

anybody any one 

everybody every one 

somebody some one 

nobody no one 

133. A ivliile should be written as two separate words 
when the while is used as a noun. 1 But when awhile is 
used as an adverb 1 meaning during a short time, it 
should be written solid. 

Right : For a while all was well. [" While " is a noun, 
object of the preposition u for."] 

Right : He came a while ago. [ u While " is a noun, ad- 
verbial modifier of " ago, " just as in " He walked a 
mile farther" "mile " is a noun, adverbial modifier of 
"farther. "] 

Right : He died a while before the war.' [" While " is a 
noun, adverbial modifier of "before the war. " Com- 
pare " He died a short time before the war," "He died 
a long way from home."] 

Right : Come in and rest awhile [i.e., during a short 
time']. 

134. Some time should be written as two separate 
words when the time is a noun. 1 But sometime, an ad- 
verb 1 meaning at some time, should be written solid. 

Right : Eor some time all was well. 
Right : He went some time ago. 
Right : Sometime I am going abroad. 

135. Any ivay should be written as two separate 
words when the way is a noun. 1 But anyway, an ad- 
verb 1 meaning m any way or in any ease, should be 
written solid. 

Right: He will not yield in any way. ["Way" is a 

noun, object of "in."] 
Right : Perhaps he objects, but I am going anyway. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



HYPHEN WITH NUMERALS 75 

The Hyphen with Numerals l 

136. Cardinal 2 numbers composed of twenty, thirty, Twenty- 
forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, or ninety followed by one etc * 
one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or nine 
should be hyphened whether used alone or as parts of 

larger numbers. 

Right : twenty-one, eighty-six, fifty-three, ninety-four, 
one hundred and thirty-six, twenty-eight thousand. 

137. No other component terms of a cardinal number One 
should be joined by a hyphen, except when the number ^ ure 
is joined to a noun to form an attributive adjective 
expression (cf. Kule 117). 

Right : one hundred, two hundred and six, one thousand 
and twenty -five. 

But note : 

Right : a two-hundred-horse-power engine, a two-hun- 
dred-mile journey. [117.] 

138. All the words in ordinal 2 numbers should be Ordinal 
joined by hyphens. num ers 

Right : twenty-seventh, one-hundred-and-sixth, " the 
thousand-ancl-second tale of Scheherazade." 

139. In fractional numbers the numerator should not Fractions 
be joined to the denominator by a hyphen except when 

the fraction is used as an attributive adjective or is joined 
to a noun to form an attributive adjective expression 
(see Rule 117). 

Right : three fourths of an inch, two thirds of a mile. 

But note : 

Right : a two-thirds majority, a three-quarter-inch 
augur. [117.] 

1 See Exercises 675, 677. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 



ABBREVIATIONS » 

Abbrevi- 140. Abbreviations are, as a rale, in bad taste in 

inelegant compositions written in connected sentences. In such 

in general compositions — including letters — it is best to use no 

abbreviations except those which are employed, not merely 

by newspapers and writers of commonplace business letters, 

but by recognized masters of English prose. 

BAD : Last summer I worked for the Chandler Mfg. Co. 
in Casey, 111. Casey is on the C. and E. I. R.R. 

Right : Last summer I worked for the Chandler Manu- 
facturing Company in Casey, Illinois. Casey is on 
the Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad. 

IMPROPER superscription on an envelope : 

Thos. Howe 

c / o Capt. Wm. 'Fiske 

Wabasha 

Minn. 

Right : 

Mr. Thomas Howe 

In care of Captain William Fiske 

Wabasha 

Minnesota 

BAD: 

Rev. Chas. Drayton 
# 463 9th st. 
Bridgeport 
Ct. 

Right : 

The Reverend Charles Dravton 
463 Ninth Street 
Bridgeport 
Connecticut 

1 See Exercise 676. 
76 



ABBREVIATIONS 77 

BAD: 

20 High St. 

Columbus, 0. 

Oct. 3, '08. 
D. C. Heath & Co. 

Chicago, 111. 
Gents : 

Yours of Sept. 30 rec'd and in reply would say I 
am at present out of mdse. desired, but will ship same 
as soon as possible. 

Y'rs resp'y, 

H. T. Hibbs. 
Right : 

20 High Street, Columbus, Ohio, 
October 3, 1908. 
Messrs. D. C. Heath and Company, 

Chicago, Illinois. 
Gentlemen : 

I have received your letter of September 30. In 
reply, allow me to say that I have not in stock at 
present the merchandise you desire, but will send it 
as soon as possible. 

Yours respectfully, 

H. T. Hibbs. 

141. Compositions written in connected sentences do Statistics, 
not include such works as dictionaries, statistical tables, jyn Cer t s 
medical prescriptions, carpenters' specifications, and mer- 
cantile bills. In such compositions, of course, any ab- 
breviation that is clear is admissible. In a grocer's bill 
it is proper to write : 

Mr. Chas. Smith in account with 

Wm. Jones 

6231 Wentworth Ave., Chicago, 111. 

Sept. 2. To 3 lbs. butter @ 23 cts. .69 

But it w T ould be incongruous to write in a connected 
composition : 

"One night early in Sept. Wm. and I met Chas. walk- 
ing disconsolately along Wentworth Ave. It seemed 
to me that he must have lost 20 lbs. since I had last 
seen him in Aurora, 111. With a haggard look he 
told us that wheat was selling @ 97' cts. per bu. and 
that he was ruined.''' 



78 



ABBREVIATIONS 



142. By way of exception to Kule 140, the abbrevia- 
tions noted in the following sections are admissible in 
connected compositions. Let it be observed that most of 
these abbreviations are proper only when used in certain 
particular combinations or in certain particular contexts. 
For example : 

Right: I came at ten p.m. 
VULGAR : I came this p.m. 

Right : He lives in room No. 12. 

BAD : Let me know the No. of your room. 

Right : My dear Dr. Hart. 
VULGAR : My dear Dr. 

Right, in a footnote : Cf. vol. I, chap. 14, pp. 71-80. 

WRONG, in the text: I am not speaking at random, 
gentlemen. You can find the statements I have quoted 
in the fourteenth chap, of the first vol. And if you 
do turn to that vol. and chap, to verify my words, read 
especially p. 71 and the following pp. 

143. The following abbreviations may be incorporated 
in sentences in the main body of a composition : 

(a) I.e., for the Latin id est, meaning that is. This 
expression denotes that what follows it is equivalent to 
what precedes. It should not be used when what follows 
is not equivalent to what precedes. 

WRONG : I like to read the Bible, i.e., some of the stories 
in the Old Testament. [" Some of the stories in the 
Old Testament " is not equivalent to "■ the Bible."] 

Right: I like some parts of the Bible — i.e., the stories 
in the Old Testament. [386.] 

Right: The act is treated as a capital crime — i.e., a 
crime punishable by death. [ U A crime punishable 
by death" is equivalent to "a capital crime."] 

Right : He had committed lese-majesty — i.e., had given 
an affront to the Emperor. ["Had . . . Emperor" 
is equivalent to "had . . . majesty."] 



The expression i.e. is appropriate to a scientific or matter- 
of-fact context ; it is incongruous in an artistic context. 



ABBREVIATIONS 79 



BAD : He did what one would expect of so chivalrous 

and noble a character ; i.e., he bent over and kissed 

her hand. 
Right : He did what one would expect of so chivalrous 

and noble a character ; he bent over and kissed her 

hand. 

Note. — The expression i.e. cannot properly be used 
wherever that is is used ; for that is may be used collo- 
quially to introduce a modification (e.g., "I was there the 
whole day — that is, nearly the whole day "), and in such a 
case i.e. is wrong. 

(b) E.g., for the Latin exempli gratia, meaning for E.g. 
the sake of example, or for example. 

Right : This organ is particularly well developed in 
some of the tropical reptiles — e.g., the boa and the 
cobra. [386.] 

The* expression e.g. is appropriate only in a scientific or 
matter-of-fact context. 

INCONGRUOUS : Dearest, send me something that has 
been near you ; e.g., a glove or a handkerchief. 

Right : Dearest, send me something that has been near 
you — a glove or a handkerchief. [307.] 

(c) Q.v., for the Latin quod vide, meaning ivhicJi Q.v. 
(relative pronoun) see (imperative). 

Right: Under Preposition (q.v.) you will find more 
information. 

(d) Viz., for the Latin videlicet, meaning namely. Viz. 

(The z represents an ancient symbol used to denote the 

omsision of letters ; compare oz. for ounce.) 

Right: Two effects are to be noted: viz., the quick 
ebullition, and the precipitation of the lavender 
'crystals. [386.] 

The expression viz. is appropriate only in a scientific or 
matter-of-fact context. 

INCONGRUOUS : And still the same image floated before 
his eyes, — viz., her hair glistening like spun gold in 
the waning sunlight. 



80 ABBREVIATIONS 

Right : And still the same image floated before his eyes 
— her hair glistening like spun gold in the waning 
sunlight. [877.] 

Sc. (e) Sc. for the Latin scilicet, meaning namely or 

(such and such a thing) being understood. The use of 
this expression is confined to very technical — particu- 
larly grammatical — works. 

Right: Thus Livy says "ad Jovis" (sc. aedem), 
meaning " near Jove's temple." 

Etc. (f) Etc., for the Latin et cetera, meaning and the 

others, or and so forth. The use of etc. is incongruous 
in a context intended to be artistic. Use a definite term 
in place of etc. or else simply omit etc. 

WRONG : She was more beautiful, witty, virtuous, etc., 

than any other lady. 
Right : She was more beautiful, witty, virtuous, and 

loyal than any other lady. 
Right : She was more beautiful, witty, and virtuous than 

any other lady. 

In any context, avoid the vague use of etc. ; use it only 
to dispense with useless repetition or to represent terms 
that are entirely obvious. 

Note. — Etc. should not be preceded by and, because and 
is included in its meaning. 

WRONG : Pillows, flags, posters, and etc. 
Right : Pillows, flags, posters, etc. 

MS. (g) MS., for manuscript ; plural MSS. These abbre- 

viations are not so common in present-day usage as they 
were in the time of Poe. 

B.C. (7i) B.C., for before Christ. This abbreviation may 

be used only in defining a year or a century named imme- 
diately before; see Rule 142. 

Right : He died in 60 b.c. 

Right : He lived in the fifth century b.c. 



ABBREVIATIONS 



81 



WRONG : Homer lived a long time b.c. [142] 
Right : Homer lived, a long time before Christ. 

(i) A.D., for the Latin anno domini, meaning in the A.D. 
year of the Lord. This abbreviation may be used only in 
defining a year — not a century. It should precede the 
date and should not be preceded by a preposition, be- 
cause in is included in its meaning. 

Right : Arminius died a.d. 21. 
WRONG : The sixth century a.d. 

Right : The sixth century after Christ, or The sixth 
century of the Christian era. 

(j) A.M., for the Latin ante meridiem, meaning A.M., P.M. 
before midday ; P.M., for post meridiem, meaning after 
midday. These abbreviations may be used only after a 
number indicating an hour; see Rule 142. They are 
incongruous except in a matter-of-fact context. 

Right : The train left at ten p.m. 

INCONGRUOUS : At 7 p.m. Hilda took her place at the 

gate, her heart beating with ecstatic eagerness. 
Right : At seven o'clock that evening Hilda took her 

place at the gate, her heart beating with ecstatic 

eagerness. 

(7c) No., for the Italian or French numero, meaning jy 0% 
number ; plural Nos. These abbreviations are proper 
only when prefixed to a number; see Rule 142. 

144. The following abbreviations may not be incor- Proper 
porated in sentences ; they may be used only as headings : headings ■ 

(a) P.S., for the Latin post scriptum, meaning p. s. 
written afterward. 

(b) N.B., for the Latin nota bene, meaning note ivell. N.B. 

145. The following abbreviations may not be incor- Proper 
porated in sentences in the main body of a composition ; footnotes 
they may be used only in footnotes and parenthetic etc.: 
citations : 



82 



ABBREVIATIONS 



Cf. 



Ff. 



Et seq. 



Ibid. 



Id. 

Vol 
Ch. 

P., pp. 
L., IL 



Abbrevia- 
tion of 
titles 



Proper 
only with 
names 



(a) Cf., for the Latin confer, meaning compare. 

Right : Cf . Browning's Saul. [That is, compare Brown- 
ing's Saul with something said here. J 

(b) Ff., for and the following (the doubled /indicat- 
ing a plural; see Eule 492). 

Right : See pages 97 ff. [That is, see page 97 and the 

following pages.] 
Right: Cf. Saul, lines 26 ff. 

(c) Et seq., or sq., or sqq., for the Latin et sequentia 
or et sequentes, meaning and the following. 

Right: See also Gibbon's Borne, vol. I, pp. 290 et seq. 

(d) Ibid., for the Latin ibidem, meaning in the same 
place — that is, in the book or chapter or page last 
cited. 

(e) Id., for the Latin idem., meaning the same — 
that is, the ivriter or the work last cited. 

(f) Vol., for volume. 

(g) Chap, or ch., for chapter. 

(h) P., for page; plural pp. (See Rule 492.) 
(i) L., for line ; plural 11. (See Rule 492.) 

The meanings of other abbreviations of all kinds can 
be found in the back part of any good dictionary. 

146. Abbreviation of titles is, in general, inelegant 
and objectionable. Spell out Professor, President, 
Captain, General, Colonel, Reverend, etc. 147. Some 
abbreviations for titles are, however, always proper — 
namely, (1) Mr., Mrs., Messrs., and Dr., when prefixed 
to names — not otherwise (see Rule 142) ; (2) Esq., and 
the initial abbreviations D.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., R.A., etc., 
when suffixed to names — not otherwise (see Rule 142). 

Right : The chair is held by Alfred Feeder, B.A. 
BAD : I shall get my B.A. next year. 



ABBREVIATIONS 83 

Right : I shall get my bachelor's degree next year. 

BAD : He is a Ph.D. from Jena. 

Right : He is a doctor of philosophy from Jena. 

148. The title Esq. is a proper substitute for Mr. Use of the 
When Esq. follows a name, no title should precede the l e sq ' 
name. 

WRONG : Mr. Ralph Williams Esq. 
Right : Ralph Williams, Esq. 



Dates, 
folios etc., 
and house 
numbers 



Omission 
of th, st 
etc. 



THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 1 

149. Do not spell out (1) cardinal 2 numbers desig- 
nating dates, (2) cardinal numbers designating the pages 
or divisions (i.e., parts, chapters, paragraphs, sections, 
rules, etc.) of a book or a document, or (3) the street 
numbers of houses. 

WRONG : On October thirteen, eighteen hundred and 
eighty-one, I was born at three hundred and sixty- 
two Adams Street. See page nine hundred and six- 
teen of our family Bible. 

Right : On October 13, 1881, I was born at 362 Adams 
Street. See page 916 of our family Bible. 

150. The number of a day following the name of a 
month should usually not be followed by th, st, nd, d, or 
rd. 

Eight : The convention lasted from October 26 to No- 
vember 3. 

151. Ordinal 2 numbers designating days of a month 
may be either spelled out or represented by figures. 

Eight : The thirteenth of May fell on Friday. 
Eight : The 13th of May fell on Friday. 

Ordinal numbers designating pages or divisions of a 
book or document are governed by Kules 164-167. 



Street 
numbers 



152. In connected discourse, in an address in a letter, 
and on an envelope, a street number not larger than one 
hundred should be spelled out. 

1 See Exercise 677. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 

84 



THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 85 

Right : I live on Thirty-sixth Street. [191, 200.] 
Right : Professor James Ludington 

541 West Sixty-second Street 

New York City 

New York 

153. In designating a sum of United States money in Sums of 

connected discourse, apply the following rules (154-160) : mone y : 

154. Do not use the sign $ for sums less than one The sign $ 
dollar. improper 

for sums 

WRONG : It costs $0.20. ]ess thau 

Right : It costs twenty cents. a aollar 

155. Do not write .00. -00 never 

to he used 
WRONG : He subscribed 8342.00 to the fund. 
Right : He subscribed §342 to the fund. 

156. For a sum amounting to a number of dollars and Fractional 
a number of cents, use the sign $ and figures ordinarily. sums 
(But see Rule 160.) 

Right : It costs $3.18. 

157. If several sums are mentioned within a short Even 
space, use figures ordinarily for all, putting the sign $ Frequent 
before all numbers representing dollars. (But see Rule 

160.) 

Right : My room costs $3 a week and my board $4.50 ; 
my contribution to the church is 30 cents ; my inciden- 
tal expenses range from $9.35 to $12.50 a month. 

158. In case of an isolated mention of a sum in cents, Isolated : 
spell out the number. ^nts* *" 

Right : The price is ninety cents. 

159. In case of an isolated mention of a sum in A sum in 



dollars without a fraction, spell out a number expressed 
in one or two words, such as three, sixteen, two hundred, 
six thousand, one million; for other numbers, such as 



dollars 



86 



THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 



102, 350, 1130, 1,500,000, use the sign $ and figures, 
as a rule. 

Right : He contributed twenty thousand dollars. 
Right : It sold for eighteen hundred dollars. 
Right : His fortune amounts to $72,500. 

Sum 160. But a sum standing first in a sentence which 

standing follows a terminal period, 1 or begins a composition or a 
sentence direct quotation, 2 should in no case be represented by 
figures. (Cf. Rule 167.) 

BAD : §36.50 was the price. 

Right : Thirty-six dollars and fifty cents was the price. 



Age 161. In connected discourse, a number designating the 

age of a person or thing should be spelled out, unless 
such numbers occur frequently within a short space. 



Right : He is sixty years old. 
Right : When I was ten years old, 
The Origin of Species. 



I enjoyed reading 



Hours of 162. In connected discourse, a number designating an 

the day hour of the day should be spelled out, unless such num- 
bers occur frequently within a short space. 

Right : Meet me at three o'clock. 

Right : I think it was about twenty minutes after six 
when she emitted that prodigious meow. 

Ten-thirty 163. Numbers of the form ten-thirty, eleven-fifteen, 
etc - etc., occurring in connected discourse are governed by 

Rule 162. These forms are incongruous in any but a 
very matter-of-fact context. (Cf. Rule 143J.) 

BAD: On the next day, about 12:30, I saw, with secret 
misgivings, the marriage of the lovely Muriel Fitz- 
duncan to Percival Castorbridge. 

1 That is, a period marking the close of a sentence, as dis- 
tinguished from one designating an abbreviation. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 



87 



Right : On the next day, about half after twelve, I saw, 
with secret misgivings, the marriage of the lovely 
Muriel Eitzduncan to Percival Castorbridge. 



164. In representing, in connected discourse, numbers 
other than those treated above, apply the following rules 
(165-167). 165. In case several numbers are men- 
tioned iu a short space, use figures for all, as a rule. 
See for example the text of Rules 565-570, where 
numbers occur frequently, and representation of them 
by words would inconvenience the reader. 166. If the 
numbers to be represented are not frequent, spell out 
numbers that may be expressed in one or two words, 
such as eighteen, ninety-seven, two hundred, eighteen 
hundred, twenty thousand, one million, fifty million ; 
as a rule, use figures for those that require three or more 
words, such as 108, 233, 1250, 18,231, 1,500,230. 

WRONG: The college is 25 miles from Columbus and 
has 900 students. 

Eight : The college is twenty-five miles from Columbus 
and has nine hundred students. [136, 137.] 

WRONG : In this city there are four hundred and thirty- 
four saloons to three hundred and eighty-five thousand, 
one hundred and ninety-two people. 

Right : In this city there are 434 saloons to 385,192 
people. 

167. But a number standing first in a sentence which 
follows a terminal period, 1 or begins a composition or a 
direct quotation, 2 should in every case be spelled out. 
(Cf. Rule 160.) 

BAD : The amount is very great, and the force was large. 

31,200 prisoners have been paroled. 
Right : The amount is very great, and the force was 

large. Thirty-one thousand, two hundred prisoners 

have been paroled. [136, 137.] 

1 See footnote 1, p. 86. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



Numbers 
in general: 

Frequent 



Not fre- 
quent 



Numbers 
beginning 
a sentence 



THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 



Paren- 168. A sum of money or a number that is spelled out 

thetic rep- gho^^ no £ \y Q repeated in parenthesized figures, except 
numbers in legal or commercial letters and instruments. 

ABSURD : A little girl, apparently about twelve (12) 
years old, sat three (3) seats ahead of me, crying. 
"Oh dear!" I heard her moan. "My two (2) 
brothers are dead." 

Right: A little girl, apparently about twelve years old, 
sat three seats ahead of me, crying. "Oh dear ! " I 
heard her moan. " My two brothers are dead." 

169. When such repetition is made, (a) a parenthesized 
sum should stand at the end of the expression that it 
repeats, not elsewhere; and (b) a parenthesized number 
should stand immediately after the number that it 
repeats, not elsewhere. 



Series 
repre- 
sented by 
terminals 



WRONG : I enclose (.$10) ten dollars. \_a] 
WRONG : I enclose ten ($10) dollars. [&] 
Right : I enclose ten dollars ($10). [a] 
Right : I enclose ten (10) dollars. [b~\ 

170. A series of numbers or dates maybe represented 
by the terminal members with a dash between them. 

Right : Read pages 21-36, inclusive. 
Right : The years 1840-1860 were for him a time of in- . 
cessant struggle. 

171. But an expression consisting of two terminal num- 
bers or dates with a dash between should not be preceded 
by a singular noun, or by the preposition from ; if the 
word from is used, the word to must also be used. 

BAD : From page 2-6 the author discusses crawfish. 
Right: From page 2 to page 6 the author discusses 

crawfish. 
Right : On pages 2-6 the author discusses crawfish. 
BAD : The Revolution took place in the year 1775-1783. 
Right: The Revolution took place in the years 
1775-1783. 



THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 89 

172. Nor should such an expression be used otherwise Series rep- 
than to designate a series. bTter^ 

ABSURD : Shakespeare was born 1564-1610. minals 

Right: Shakespeare was born in 1564 and died in 1616. 
Right : The period of Shakespeare's life, 1564-1616, 
was rich in interesting events. 



Division 
between 
syllables 



SYLLABICATION 1 

173. When a word is divided at the end of a line, 
the separation should be made between syllables, not 
elsewhere. 

There is no uniform principle for determining just 
what are the several syllables of any given word; one 
must rely largely on learning, by observation and by 
reference to dictionaries, what is the correct syllabication 
in individual cases. Nevertheless, a good many errors 
may be avoided by the observance of the following sim- 
ple rules : 

Follow 174. Do not set apart from each other combinations 

tion 1UnCia " °f Otters the separate pronunciation of which is impos- 
sible or unnatural. 



(a) WRONG : Exc-ursion ; go-ndola ; lllustr-ate ; instr- 
uction ; pun-ctuation. 
Right : Ex-cursion ; gon-dola ; illus-trate ; instruc- 
tion ; punc-tuation. 

(6) WRONG : Prostr-ate ; pri-nciple ; abs-urd ; fini-shing ; 
sugge-stion. 
Right : Pros-trate ; prin-ciple ; ab-surd ; finish-ing ; 
sugges-tion. 

(c) WRONG : Nat-ion ; conclus-ion ; in vent-ion ; introd-uct- 

ion ; abbr-eviat-ion. 
Right : Na-tion ; conclu-sion ; inven-tion ; introduc- 
tion ; ab-brevia-tion. 

(d) WRONG : Diffic-ult ; tob-acco ; exc-ept ; univ-ersity ; 

dislo-dgment. 
Right : Diffi-cult ; to-bacco ; ex-cept ; uni-versity ; 
dislodg-ment. 

1 See Exercise 678. 



SYLLABICATION 91 

175. As a rule, divide between a prefix and the letter Prefixes 
following it. 

WRONG : Bet-ween ; pref-ix ; antec-edent ; conf-ine ; 
del-ight. 

Right : Be-tween ; pre-fix ; ante-cedent ; con-fine ; de- 
light. 

176. As a rule, divide between a suffix and the letter Suffixes 
preceding it. Divide, e.g., before -ing, -ly, -ment, -ed 
(when it is pronounced as a separate syllable, as in 
delight-eel), -ish, -able, -er, -est. 

Right: Lov-ing; love-ly ; judg-ment ; invit-ed; Jew- 
ish ; punish-able ; strong-er ; strong-est. 
BAD : star-ted ; fee-ding . 
Right : start-ed ; feed-ing. 

177. As a rale, when a consonant is doubled, divide Doubled 
between the two letters. This rule often takes preced- 
ence of Rule 176 above. 



conso- 
nants 



Right : rub-ber ; ab-breviation ; oc-casion ; ad-dition ; 
af-fmity ; Rus-sian ; expres-sion j ornis-sion ; com- 
mit-tee ; ex-cel-lent ; stop-ping ; drop-ping ; ship- 
ping ; equip-ping. 

178. Never divide in the midst of th pronounced as in Digraphs 
the or thin; sh as in push; ph as in phonograph; ng **j chf sh 

as in sing ; gn as in sign ; tch as in fetch ; and gh pro- 
nounced as in rough, or silent. Never divide cJc except 
in accordance with Rule 179 below. 

WRONG : cat-holic ; ras-hness ; disc-harge ; diap-hragm ; 

gin-gham. 
Right : cath-olic ; rash-ness ; dis-charge ; dia-phragm ; 

ging-ham. 
WRONG : consig-nment ; wat-ching ; doug-hty. 
Right : consign-ment ; watch-ing ; dough-ty. 

The divisions post-humous, dis-habille, Lap-ham, 
nightin-gale, distin-guish, sin-gle, sig-nature, and Leg- 
horn, form no exceptions to the foregoing rule, for in 



92 



SYLLABICATION 



Final le 



Mono- 
syllables 



Syllables 
of one 
letter 



them th, sh, etc. are pronounced each as two distinct 
sounds. 

179. In dividing words like edible, possible, bridle, 
trifle, beagle, crackle, twinkle, staple, entitle, do not set 
le apart by itself; always place with it the preceding 
consonant. 

Right : edi-ble ; possi-ble ; bri-dle ; tri-fle ; bea-gle ; 
crac-kle ; etc. 

180. A monosyllable, 1 used either separately or as a 
part of a compound word, should never be divided at the 
end of a line. 

WRONG : tho-ugh ; thing-s ; dropp-ed ; stop-ped ; stea- 
mboat ; hou-sekeeper. 

Right : though ; tilings ; dropped ; stopped ; steam- 
boat ; house-keeper. 

181. A monosyllabic 1 word, in an inflectional 1 form 
that has an extra syllable, may of course be divided; 
but the division should never be made within the stem x 
of the word. (Cf. Rule 176.) 

BAD : star-ted ; buil-ding ; hee-ded. 
Right : start-ed ; build-ing ; heed-ed. 

182. A syllable of one letter should not be divided 
from the rest of the word. 

BAD : a-lone ; a-mong ; man-y. 
Right : alone ; among ; many. 



Position 
of the 
hyphen 



183. When a word is divided at the end of a line, 
the hyphen should be placed after the first element of 
the word, and there only ; a hyphen should never be 
placed at the beginning of a line. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ft. 



CAPITALS i 

184. Proper nouns 2 in general, including the names of Proper 
the days of the week and the names of the months, should nouns 
be capitalized. But note : 185. The words spring, monthly 1 
sitmmer, midsummer, autumn, fall, winter, and mid- g easons 
winter should not be capitalized except when personified. 

186. (a) Names of particular associations of people — Societies 
political, religious, social, scientific, commercial, and other etc - 
— should be capitalized. 

Right : The Republican Party. The Presbyterian 
Church. The Baker's Dozen. The Royal Geograph- 
ical Society. The Union Central Life Insurance 
Company. The Standard Oil Company. The 
Amalgamated Federation of Sausage-makers. 

Qj) Nouns and adjectives denoting membership in a 
particular association, or relation to it, should likewise 
be capitalized. 

Right: I am a Democrat. They are Methodists. Is 
that sound Republican doctrine ? It is a Baptist sem- 
inary. 



187. Proper names 2 designating particular institutions, Institu- 

such as the titles of schools, colleges, hospitals, build- ^hoote 

ings, parks, railroads, should usually be capitalized (prepo- buildings, 
sitions, 2 conjunctions, 2 and articles 2 being excepted). 

i See Exercises 679-681. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 
93 



94 



CAPITALS 



Depart- 
ments of 
govern- 
ment 



Federal 
and state 



State 



Historical 
events 



Right: The North Side High School. Lafayette College. 
He attended the University of Kansas. He was 
taken to the Roosevelt Hospital, which I think is 
near Morningside Park. The offices of the Burling- 
ton Railroad may be in the Monadnock Building, for 
all I know. 

188. Names of particular governmental departments, 
boards, parliaments, and other bodies should in general 
be capitalized. 

Right : The Congress of the United States is composed 
of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The 
Parliament of Great Britain consists of the House of 
Lords and the House of Commons. The Diet of the 
German Empire is likewise bi-cameral, and so is the 
General Assembly of Nebraska. 

Right : The Department of the Interior has made a 
communication to the Illinois Department of Public 
Instruction. 

189. It is customary, however, to distinguish federal 
authorities from state authorities called by the same name, 
by capitalizing the name of the federal and not capitaliz- 
ing that of the state. 

Right : The Senate does not concur with the House on 

the tariff bill. 
Right : The Minnesota senate has rejected the school 

bill passed by the house of representatives. 

The word state, when it designates one of the United 
States, may be capitalized ; but the custom of capitaliz- 
ing it has fallen somewhat into disuse among the best 
writers and printers. 

190. Proper names 1 designating important historical 
events are usually capitalized; e.g., the Civil War, the 
French Revolution, the Norman Conquest. 

191. A common noun, 1 such as club, company, 
society, college, high school, railroad, county, river, 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 



CAPITALS 



95 



lake, jpa?'A:, street, city, should be capitalized when it is Common- 
made a component part of a proper name ; l usually not elements 
otherwise. (Cf. Rules 186, 187.) of proper 



Right : Have you attended high school ? 

Right : I attended the Englewood High School. 

Right : I went to college one year. 

Right : What college ? Columbia College ? 

Right: He walked down the street. 

Right: He walked from State Street along Twelfth 
Street as far as Wentworth Avenue. Then he turned 
south and walked to Twenty-second Street. 

Right : They rowed on the river. 

Right : The town is on the Fox River. 

Right : The largest store in the city. 

Right : The largest store in Sioux City. 



192. A common noun 1 or an adjective, 1 when used in Words in 
a restricted sense, may be capitalized, particularly when sense ° 
without capitalization its restricted sense might not be 
clear. 



Right : He was executed in the Terror. I swear by the 
Book. The minister spoke mainly of the Father and 
the Son. All the vice of New York is said to pay 
tribute to the Big Fellow. But the Duke said to the 
Student, "Here, keep your money, old man." The 
Barbarians, as we have said, often' want the political 
support of the Philistines. 

Right: In those days the Roman government was 
republican. — Hancock County has been Republican 
for years. 

Right: He and I are friends. — Edgar and Isaac are 
Friends, you know. 

Right : He gave me a useful rule. 

Right: See Rule 21 [i.e., Rule 21 of the present book 
— the capital showing that this is the meaning]. 

Right : The book contains a grammatical vocabulary. 

Right : See the Grammatical Vocabulary [i.e., one par- 
ticular grammatical vocabulary — namely, that in the 
present book]. 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



96 



CAPITALS 



Titles of 
persons 



193. Titles of persons should be capitalized when used 
in connection with proper names, and when used as 
vocatives. 



President 
etc. 



Right : There go Professor Cox and Colonel Henry. 
Right : I met Mayor Helms and Alderman Cullom. 
Right : u You are mistaken, Professor." — " But my dear 
Colonel, I am sure I am right." 

194. When used otherwise, titles of persons should 
not, as a rule, be capitalized. 

Right : The professor became a colonel in. the volunteer 

army. . 
Right : I met the mayor and the alderman of the first 

ward. 

/ • 

195. But the title of the President and Vice President 

of the United States, the individual titles of the members 
of the President's cabinet (the Secretary of State, the 
Attorney-general, etc.), and the title of the Chief Jus- 
tice of the federal Supreme Court should always be capi- 
talized. Titles of other federal officers and of state and 
municipal officers should usually not be capitalized ex- 
cept when they precede proper names. 

Right : The President and the Postmaster-general vis- 
ited our mayor. Several aldermen were called into 
consultation. The city postmaster, the governor, the 
president of the university, and the secretary of our 
debating society also came. 



Pronouns 196. The pronouns he, his, him, thou, thee, and thine 
to^DeUy 8 are usua ^y capitalized when they refer to God or the 
Christ. 



North, 
south etc. 



197. North, south, east, west, and their compounds 
{northwest etc.), and derivatives {northern etc.), should 
not be capitalized except when they designate divisions of 
the country. 



CAPITALS 



97 



Right : As we sailed north we saw a ship going west. 

Right : The West is prosperous. The people of the 
South are migrating westward. The Northern dele- 
gates clashed with the Southern. 

198. Nouns and adjectives of race and language, such Race and 
as Greek, Latin, German, French, English, Indian, lan g ua S e 
should be capitalized. 

199. In written German all nouns 1 are capitalized; German 
therefore a German noun used in an English context 
should be capitalized. (Cf. Rule 225.) 

Right : I was still filled with the Wanderlust. 

Right : He is what we used to call in Berlin an Ober- 

meisterschottldndischdudelsackpfeifer. 
Right : The count had shot " eine schone Beutelratte" 

as he said — or, in plain English, a fine 'possum. 

200. When a hyphened word is to be capitalized, only Hyphened 
the first component should be capitalized, as a rule. words 

Right : Seventy-second Street. [136.] The Adventures 
of Dare-devil Nat. Commander-in-chief Fortesque. 
[120.] 

201. But when a title preceded by ex is capitalized, Prefixes 
the prefix should not be capitalized. talized* 1 " 

Right : This was written by ex-President Roosevelt in 
collaboration with ex-Senator Jones. [105.] 

202. In the title of a literary, artistic, or musical Literary 
work the first word and all subsequent words except es 
prepositions, 1 conjunctions, 1 articles, 1 and unemphatic 
pronouns x and auxiliaries 1 should be capitalized. 

Right : Kipling's The Light that Failed, Swift's A Tale 
of a Tub and TJie Battle of the Books, Dickens's A 
Tale of Two Cities, Kingsley's Westward Ho. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



98 



CAPITALS 



Predica- 
tions : 
After 
period 

After 
semicolon 



After 
colon 



203. In a complete independent predication 1 which 
follows a terminal period, 2 or begins a composition or a 
direct quotation, 3 the" first word should be capitalized. 

204. A complete independent predication * following a 
semicolon should not be capitalized. 

Right : Go to the library ; your father wants you. 

205. A complete independent predication x following a 
colon should not be capitalized if it is the only predica- 
tion introduced by the colon. 

Right : The explanation is simply this : the water rises 
because it is hot. 

206. But if the predication following a colon is only the 
first of a series introduced by the colon, — a series the 
members of which are separated by periods, — it should 
be capitalized. . • 

Right : The explanation is this : First, the water is 
heated. Next, it rises because it is lighter than the 
water above. Finally, it descends from the top by a 
different system of pipes. 

Appositive 207. When a colon introduces an appositive, 3 grammati- 
cal or rhetorical, the appositive should of course not be 
capitalized. 

Right : The ingredients are these : barley, hops, and 
water. [374.] 

Right : I am sure of this : that his administration was 
honest. [374.] 

Right : It is used in three ways : for food, for medi- 
cine, and for clothing. [383.] 

208. In a series of closely related interrogative predi- 
cations, 4 the member or members following the first may 
be written without capitalization. 

i See 243, 244. 2 See footnote 1, p. 86. 

3 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

4 See 236 ff . 



Series of 
questions 



CAPITALS 99 

Right : Must I obey you ? must I crouch before you ? 
Right : What's his name ? where does he live ? what 
does he do ? Xo one knows. 

209. An independent predication l interpolated in, or Paren- 
attached to, another, and inclosed between parentheses, pre( iica- 
dashes, or commas, should not be capitalized. tion 

Right : His profits (he told me this himself) were ten 
thousand. 

Right : I dressed — you may not believe this, but it's 
true — in twenty minutes. 

Right : Three thousand dollars, it is estimated, have al- 
ready been spent. 

210. A complete independent predication 1 that is Quoted 
directly quoted should be capitalized, as was stated in tkm 1Ca " 
Kule 203. 

Right : The captain cried, "All hands to the pumps ! " 

But note : 211. A quoted word or expression not con- Quoted 
stituting an independent predication 1 should not be ra S men s 
capitalized when incorporated elsewhere than at the 
beginning in a predication of the quoter. (Cf. Rule 470.) 

Right: It seemed to be "without form and void." 
Right : The " safe and sane" policy of our governor. 

212. A partially quoted predication from which the 
quoter omits words that stand at the beginning of the 
original predication is generally not capitalized when used 
as a chapter heading or as a motto on a title-page or a 
fly leaf. 

Right: CHAPTER III 

u . . . with ruin upon ruin, rout on rout." 

— Paradise Lost. 

i See 242-244. 



100 



CAPITALS 



Lines of 
poetry 



213. The first word of every line of poetry should be 
capitalized. 



Eight : 



So shall I love thee 

Down in the dark — lest 
Glowworm I prove thee, 

Star that now sparkiest. 



- Browning. 



Para- 
graphed 
clauses 



Capitali- 
zation 
without 
reason 



214. When a sentence is divided into paragraphs 
for the purpose of emphasizing its several parts, — as is 
done in public resolutions, legal instruments, and tech- 
nical writing, — the first word of every such paragraph 
should be capitalized. 

Right : 

Whereas 

. . . ; and 

Whereas ; therefore be it 

Resolved . . . . . 

215. Common nouns 1 should, in general, not be cap- 
italized except in accordance with one of the preceding 
rules. Do not capitalize words which there is no reason 
for capitalizing, such as locomotive, forest, organ, rhet- 
oric, mathematics, history, whooping cough, landlady, 
bulldog, electricity, citizen, flour mill, profession, gold 
mine, teachers' convention, freshman, sophomore, 
junior, senior. 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 if. 



ITALICS 1 



Exclusion 
of author's 
name 



216. Italics should be indicated in manuscript by one Represen- 
straight line drawn below each word to be italicized. Do j^^g 
not use wave lines ; do not use double or triple lines ; do 

not use print instead of script. Draw one straight line 
under each word to be italicized. 

217. Titles of literary, musical, and artistic works, and Titles 
of periodicals and newspapers, should be italicized 2 when 
mentioned in written discourse. 

Right : Walter Scott's The Talisman, Rider Haggard's 
King Solomon s Mines, Talford's Ion, and the Atlan- 
tic Monthly furnish his principal amusement. 

218. It is permissible to enclose titles in quotation 
marks, instead of italicizing them ; but the simpler and 
better approved practice is to italicize. 219. Do not 
italicize the author's name, nor enclose it in quotation 
marks if quotation marks are used instead of italics. 

BAD : We studied Irvincfs Astoria. 

Right : We studied living's Astoria. 

BAD : " Scott's M arm ion " is a spirited poem. 

Right : Scott's " Marmion " is a spirited poem. 

Preferable : Scott's Marmion is a spirited poem. 

220. Quote literary, musical, and artistic titles exactly. 

BAD : Whitman's poem Captain, My Captain com- 
memorates Lincoln. 

Right: Whitman's poem Captain, My Captain com- 
memorates Lincoln. [381.] 

221. If the title of a single literary, musical, or artis- 
tic work begins with the or a, this word should not be 
omitted in writing the title, and it should be capitalized or a : 
and italicized. 2 

i See Exercise 682. 2 See 216. 

101 



Accurate 
citation 



Titles 
beginning 
with the 



102 



ITALICS 



Single 
works 



Periodi- 
cals 



Ships 



Words 
discussed 



Foreign 
words 



WRONG : Do you like Kipling's Man Who TTas'and 

Chaminade's Silver Ring? 
Right : Do you like Kipling's The Man Who Was and 

Chaminade's The Silver Bing? 
WRONG : I felt depressed after reading the House of 

Mirth. 
Right : I felt depressed after reading The House of 

Mirth. 
WRONG : Poe's story Descent into the Maelstrom is 

very vivid. 
Right : Poe's story A Descent into the Maelstrom is 

very vivid. [381.] 

222. In writing the name of a newspaper or other peri- 
odical, however, a the limiting the noun of the title should 
not be capitalized or italicized, even if it is part of the 
title ; and the name of a city modifying adjectively the 
noun of the title should not be italicized. 

Right : She found there some copies of the Pall Mall 
Gazette, the Evening Telegraph, the Century Maga- 
zine, the New York Evening Post, and the Madison 
(Wisconsin) Democrat. 

223. Names of ships should be italicized. 1 
Right : I cut the Hispaniola from her anchor. 

224. When a word is spoken of as a word, — not 
used to represent the thing or idea that it ordinarily rep- 
resents, and not quoted, — it should be italicized. 1 When 
a word is spoken of as a quoted word, it should usually 
be inclosed in quotation marks and not italicized. 

Right : The misuse of grand, awful, and nice is a 

common fault. 
Right: In the expression, " we, the people," " people " 

is in apposition with "we." 

225. Unnaturalized foreign words introduced into an 
English context should usually be italicized. 1 

Right : He is a bona fide purchaser. 
Right : The president pro tempore endeavored to main- 
tain the status quo. 

i See 216. 



ITALICS 103 

226. A word may be emphasized by means of italics. 1 Emphasis 
But italics should not be used for this purpose except in 

cases where obscurity or misconstruction would result 
from lack of emphasis. Since such cases are rare, itali- 
cizing for emphasis should be rare. 

BAD: The curse of this age is commercialism coupled 

with hypocrisy. 
Right : The curse of this age is commercialism coupled 

with hypocrisy. 

227. Italics 1 should not be used for the purpose of Labeling 
calling attention to one's own humor or irony. (Cf. Rules numor 
532, 533/.) 

BAD : The villain in the play was charming. 
-Right : The villain in the play was charming. 

228. Italics x should not be used except in accordance Use 
with one of the foregoing rules. Do not italicize the Jood 011 
names of schools, colleges, mercantile firms, political reason 
parties, religious sects, labor unions, fraternities, scientific 
associations, buildings, streets, parks, rivers, canals, rail- 
roads, governmental authorities, committees, or depart- 
ments of public administration, or other names, without 
special reason. 

i See 216. 



PUNCTUATION 

Introduction 

Definition 229. Punctuation is the use, in writing or printing, 
of certain marks called points, in addition to the symbols 
used to represent words. The points are as follows : 

The period . 

The semicolon ; 

The colon : 

The question mark ? 

The exclamation mark ! 

The comma , 

The dash — 

Parentheses, or parenthesis marks ( ) 

Brackets 

The apostrophe ' 

The hyphen - 

Quotation marks " " and ' ' 

(230. The marks " and ; are the initial quotation marks, 
and the marks " and ' are the terminal quotation marks. 
These are distinguished in print ; but they are not dis- 
tinguished in typewriting, and (as explained in Rule 8) need 
not be distinguished in manuscript. ) 

231. The points are used for two purposes : 
Separative (a) They are used to separate consecutive parts of 
use connected discourse. For example, consider the following 

passages of connected discourse : 

(1) They cautiously approached the man in gray whom 
they saw standing on the veranda looked formidably 
big and muscular 

104 



PUNCTUATION 105 

(2) My aunt had made no preparation for our visit was 

entirely unannounced 

(3) At twelve o'clock to-day I intend to strike my friend 

As printed above, these passages are not clear at first 
reading. They can be made clear at first reading by the 
separation of certain consecutive parts in each one. The 
first we can make clear by separating the two consecu- 
tive parts " They cautiously approached " and " the man 
. . . looked formidably big and muscular," thus : 

They cautiously approached. The man in gray 
whom they saw standing on the veranda looked for- 
. midably big and muscular 

or thus : 

-They cautiously approached ; the man in gray whom 
they saw standing on the veranda looked formi- 
dably big and muscular 

The second we can make clear by separating the two 
consecutive members " My aunt had made no prepara- 
tion" and "for our visit was entirely unannounced," 
thus : 

My aunt had made no preparation, for our visit was 
entirely unannounced 

Or thus: 

My aunt had made no preparation ; for our visit was 
entirely unannounced 

The third we can make clear by separating the two con- 
secutive parts " At twelve o'clock to-day I intend to 
strike " and "my friend," thus : 

At twelve o'clock to-day I intend to strike, my friend 

(6) They are used to designate words and letters as Design a- 
used in certain particular ways. For example, consider tlve use 
the following obscure expressions : 



106 



PUNCTUATION 



Advan- 
tages of 
good punc- 
tuation : 

Clearness 



(1) I heard the boys shout in the distance and by it judged 

that he had made a discovery 

(2) I do not know which would be American you mean 

(3) George said I was a wretched incompetent like that of 

any use to you 

We can make the first of these expressions clear by 
designating that the s of " boys " is used to form the 
possessive singular, thus : 

I heard the boy's shout in the distance and by it judged 
that he had made a discovery 

We can make the second clear by designating that the 
words " would be " are used to form an adjective, thus : 

I do not know which would-be American you mean 

We can make the third clear by designating that the 
words "George" and i( was a wretched incompetent like 
that of any use to you " are quoted, thus : 

"George" said I " was a wretched incompetent like 
that of any use to you " 

Thus, punctuation is of two kinds — separative and 
designative. These will be discussed in order in Rules 
233-535. 

232. There are two reasons for devoting study and 
care to punctuation : 

(a) Good punctuation is necessary to make the mean- 
ing of written discourse immediately clear; neglect 
of punctuation, or improper punctuation, often makes 
written discourse obscure or misleading. The obscurity 
or liability to misconstruction caused by poor punctuation 
may be only temporary; but that fact does not excuse 
poor punctuation. It is a writer's business not only to 
avoid absolute obscurity, but to avoid vexing the reader 
by giving him an impression which a moment later he 



PUNCTUATION 107 

perceives is mistaken. For example, consider this 
sentence : 

When the doctor had left Mr. Hawkins lying quietly 
on the sofa, presently began to snore. 

This sentence is clear after one has read it through ; but 
it is not immediately clear as one reads it. One reads 
" When the doctor had left Mr. Hawkins lying quietly 
on the sofa," supposing that this is a dependent clause, 
and one reads " presently " supposing it is the first word 
of the principal clause; but in reading " began to snore," 
one is annoyed to find that one has misconstrued the 
sentence and must reconstruct the sense, making " When 
the doctor had left " the dependent clause, and " Mr. Haw- 
kins .... presently began to snore " the principal clause. 
Written English in reading which one continually finds 
oneself thus misled and compelled to retrace one's steps 
in order to reconstruct the sense, is a constant irritation 
to the reader — an irritation for which there is obviously 
no defense in the plea that the sense can be made out if 
one will but be patient. Now, the sentence quoted above 
can be made immediately clear by correct punctuation, 
thus : 

When the doctor had left, Mr. Hawkins, lying quietly 
on the sofa, began to snore. 

And not only can the sentence be made immediately clear 
by punctuation, but it cannot be immediately clear with- 
out punctuation. As in this case, so in many others, 
punctuation is not only an effective means, but a neces- 
sary means, to immediate clearness. 

(b) Good punctuation is desirable for the sake of pro- Propriety 
priety. In many cases where the punctuation required 
by good usage is not necessary to clearness, the lack of it 
is uncouth. For example, the following expressions are 
clear at first reading : 



108 PUNCTUATION 

Where have you been John. 

I could not get into the house the janitor careless fellow 
having locked the door and gone home. 

In Nutley New Jersey there are few factories. 

In Nutley, New Jersey there are few factories. 

On May 17 1907 we sailed for Belfast Ireland. 

On May 17, 1908 we returned. 

But though they are clear, they are uncouth as they 
stand. A reader accustomed to well- written English 
is, when he reads such sentences, distracted from the 
writer's thought to the oddity of the way in which the 
thought is expressed. The sentences should be punctu- 
ated thus : 

Where have you been, John ? 

I could not get into the house, the janitor — careless 

fellow — having locked the door and gone home. 
In Nutley, New Jersey, there are few factories. 
On May 17, 1907, we sailed for Belfast, Ireland. 
On May 17, 1908, we returned. 

This punctuation does not make the sentences any clearer 
than they were as first printed : " Where have you been 
John." is as clear as " Where have you been, John?" 
"On May, 1908 we returned" is as clear as " On May, 
1908, we returned." But the fact that an expression is 
perfectly clear does not always prove that the expression 
need not be corrected ; if this were the case, there would 
be no good ground for objecting to such expressions as 
"I would have went," "you have rode," "he seen what 
I done," for they are perfectly clear. In punctuation, as 
in grammar, the claims of good usage are to be respected, 
as well as those of clearness. 

SEPARATIVE PUNCTUATION 

Definition 233. Separative punctuation is, as was said above 
(231a), the separation, by points, of consecutive parts of 



SEPARATIVE PUNCTUATION 109 

connected discourse. What particular parts should be 
so separated, and by what particular points they should 
be separated, — these matters the following rules are in- 
tended to state. 

234. Before the reader begins to read the rules of sep- Necessity 
arative punctuation, he should be emphatically warned of standing" 
one thing : namely, the necessity of clearly understanding the ter- 
the terms used in the rules. The elements that make up mino ogy 
connected discourse are of a number of different kinds. 
These different kinds of elements must be called by differ- 
ent names if rules concerning them are to be formulated. 
A person reading such rules must, in order to make use 
of them, know what elements are referred to by the terms 
used. The most common-sense, definite, clean-cut direc- 
tion is meaningless to a man who does not understand 
the terms it employs. The direction "On a sheet of 
paper ten inches long and four inches wide draw a line 
parallel to the longer sides and midway between them " 
could not be intelligently followed by a man who did not 
know what "paper, " " parallel," and "midway" meant, 
who thought that "four" denoted a larger number than 
"ten," and who was uncertain whether an inch was the 
length of his thumb nail or the length of his thumb. 
The reader of this book is advised to make sure, in reading 
the rules of punctuation, that he understands the terms 
used to denote different elements of connected discourse. 
Explanations of these terms are given on pages 360-384 
and at other places, which will be indicated as occasion for 
referring to them arises. The reader is advised to turn 
frequently to these explanations. He is. advised to con- 
sult the explanation of even those terms with which he is 
familiar ; and this for two reasons : First, to many people 
grammatical terms, though they are familiar, are vague, 
calling up in the mind, not distinct ideas, but blurred and 



110 



PUNCTUATION 



Punctua- 
tion a 
mystic 
art? 



Impor- 
tance of 
the term 
predica- 
tion 



confused impressions like those called up by the terms in 

"'Twas brillig, and the slithey toves 
Did gyre and ginible in the wabe. " 

Let the reader see to it that phrase, clause, conjunc- 
tion, preposition, pronoun, dependent, coordinate, ab- 
solute, vocative, subject, predicate, participle, modifier, 
appositive, etc. have in his mind meanings as distinct and 
as incapable of being confounded with one another as the 
meanings of house, chair, floor, ceiling, horse, dog, earth, 
sky. Second, some grammatical terms are used by dif- 
ferent people in different senses. Let the reader be sure 
that he knows the sense in which every grammatical term 
is used in this book. 

Many people find punctuation a strangely perplexing 
subject, in which they are unable, in spite of earnest ef- 
fort, to make any headway. They read a page of rules 
and then cannot tell what they have read ; they study for 
weeks and do not feel that they know any better how to 
punctuate than before they began ; they find many of the 
rules obscure, and many elusive and unrememberable. 
They conclude that the whole subject has something met- 
aphysical and mystical about it. There may be readers 
of this book who have had such an experience, and who 
are saying, " Can you show us some means of getting 
hold of this apparently intangible art?" We answer, 
Yes, we can show you a means of getting hold of it ; but 
only on one condition — that you will understand the 
terms we use, and will understand them in the senses in 
which we use them. 

235. In most cases the grammatical terms may be 
studied in connection with the rules in which they occur. 
But there is one term — the most important of all that 
are used in this book — the meaning of which it is neces- 
sary that the reader master at once, before proceeding 



SEPARATIVE PUNCTUATION 111 

further. This is the term predication. An understanding 
of many other terms is necessary, to an understanding 
of many single rules that follow ; but an understand- 
ing of the term predication is fundamental to an 
understanding of the entire system of separative punctu- 
ation here presented. 

236. A predication is (1) an expression composed of Predica- 
a subject 1 and predicate 1 or composed of a predicate in ^^ e ~ 
the imperative 1 mode with the subject omitted ; or (2) 
a series of such expressions connected by a pure coordi- 
nating conjunction" between each two members or by one 
pure coordinating conjunction before the last member. 

(237. The pure coordinating conjunctions are and, but, 
for, or, nor, and neither. * 2 ) 

238. A predication of the first kind mentioned in Simple 
Section 236 is a simple predication ; one of the second compound 
kind a compound predication. For example, the follow- 
ing are simple predications : 

God reigns. 

God, who created all things, reigns in heaven, though 

fools deny it. 
Stop. 
Stop talking, if you please. 

The following are compound predications : 

God reigns, and the Republic still lives. 

God reigns, the Republic lives, and all is well. 

239. The expression " God reigns ; the Republic still Not 
lives " is not a compound predication, for its members com P oun 
are not connected by a conjunction ; it is two separate 
predications. 240. The expression " God reigns ; there- 
fore the Republic lives" is not a compound predication, 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 fT. 

2 The conjunctions both and either need not be named, for 
they are used only in correlation, respectively, with and and or. 



112 



PUNCTUATION 



Separate 
and com- 
ponent 



for its members are joined, not by a pure conjunction, 
but by a conjunctive adverb ; it is two separate predi- 
cations. 

Note. — The chief conjunctive adverbs are so, therefore, 
hence, however, yet, still, nevertheless, moreover, further, 
furthermore, accordingly, besides, also, thus, then, indeed, 
otherwise. 

241. A simple predication 1 may be (1) separate or 
(2) component. A separate simple predication is one 
which is not part of a compound * predication ; a com- 
ponent simple predication is one which is part of a com- 
pound predication. For example, in " God reigns, and 
the Republic still lives," "God reigns" is a component 
f simple predication. In each of the three expressions 

God reigns. The Republic lives. 
God reigns ; the Republic lives. 
God reigns ; so the Republic lives. 

" God reigns " is a separate predication. 

Independ- 242. An independent predication is a predication 2 which 

dependent * s no ^ grammatically dependent on any words outside itself. 

For example, the following are independent predications: 

The bell rang. [Simple independent predication.] 

The bell rang just as I sat down. [Simple independent 
predication.] 

The bell rang, and my uncle entered. [Compound in- 
dependent predication.] 

The bell rang, I arose, and my uncle entered. [Com- 
pound independent predication.] 

The italicized expressions following are dependent predi- 
cations : 

When the bell rang, I rose. [" The bell rang " is made 
by " when " dependent on " rose."] 

The man rang the bell which lay on the table. [" Which 
lay on the table " is dependent on " bell."] 



i See 238-240. 



2 See 236. 



SEPARATIVE PUNCTUATION 



113 



243. A complete independent predication is (1) the Complete 



whole of a separate 1 simple independent 2 predication in- 
cluding any adjuncts that may be attached to it, as dis- 
tinguished from its bare 3 subject and predicate ; or (2) the 
whole of an independent compound 4 predication, as dis- 
tinguished from its component simple predications. For 
example: (1) The whole expression " They cheered the 
brave soldier who had restored the flag after it had been 
shot down " is an independent predication ; but the main 
part, "they cheered the brave soldier," is also an inde- 
pendent predication ; a rule concerning a complete 
independent predication applies to the whole expression as 
distinguished from the main part. (2) The expression 
"God reigns, and the Republic lives" is an independent 
predication, but so are the two parts "God reigns" and 
" the Republic lives " ; a rule concerning a complete inde- 
pendent predication applies to the whole expression as 
distinguished from its two parts. 

Each of the following expressions is a complete inde- 
pendent predication: 

(a) A crowd assembled. [Simple. Subject u crowd"; 

predicate "assembled."] 

(b) A goddess girdled with flowers and smiling farewell 

upon a circle of worshipers, to each one of whom that 
gracious calmness made the smile sweeter and the 
farewell more sad ; other figures, other flowers, an 
angel's face, — all these I saw in that group as I 
swayed up and down the deck by the eager swarm of 
people. [Simple. Subject "I"; predicate "saw."] 

(c) To add to the relief, besides, by one of those malicious 

coincidences which suggest for Fate the image of an 
underbred and grinning schoolboy, we had no sooner 
worn ship than the wind began to abate. [Simple. 
Subject ;t we " ; predicate " had worn."] 

(d) I love to recall the glad monotony of a Pacific voyage, 

!See 241. - 2 See 242. 

3 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

4 See 238-240. 



independ- 
ent predi- 
cations 



Examples 
of com- 
plete in- 
dependent 
predica- 
tions 



114 



PUNCTUATION 



Examples 
of com- 
plete in- 
dependent 
predica- 
tions 



when the trades are not stinted, and the ship, day- 
after day, goes free — the mountain scenery of trade- 
wind clouds, watched (and in my case painted) under 
every vicissitude of light — blotting stars, withering 
in the moon's glory, barring the scarlet eve, lying 
across the dawn collapsed into the unfeatared morn- 
ing bank, or at noon raising their snowy summits be- 
tween the blue roof of heaven and the blue floor of 
the sea ; the small, busy, and deliberate world of the 
schooner, with its unfamiliar scenes, the spearing of 
dolphin from the bowsprit end, the holy war on 
sharks, the cook making bread on the main hatch ; 
reefing down before a violent squall, with the men 
hanging out on the footropes ; the squall itself, the 
catch of the heart, the open sluices of the sky ; and 
the relief, the renewed loveliness of life, when all is 
over, the sun forth again, and our out-fought enemy 
only a blot upon the leeward sea. [Simple. Subject 
u I " ; predicate " love " with objects.] 

(e) Then if Johnson were the visitor, he would pick a 
snack out of the cupboard, and stand, braced against 
the table, eating it, and perhaps obliging me with a 
word or two of his hee-haw conversation — how it was 
" a son of a gun of a cold night outside, Mr. Dodd " 
(with a grin), how "it wasn't no night for panjam- 
mers, he could tell me " ; having transacted all which, 
he would throw himself down on his bunk and sleep 
his two hours with compunction. [Simple. Subject 
"he " ; predicate " would pick and stand" with ad- 
juncts.] 

(/) Halt. [Simple. Subject omitted ; predicate " halt. "] 

(g) Present arms. [Simple. Subject omitted ; predicate 
"present. "] 

(h) If I feel her arm leaning more heavily on mine as we 
walk around the squares, I press it closely to my side, 
for I know that the easy grace of her youth's mo- 
tion will be restored by the elixir of that Spanish 
air. [Compound. Subject of the first member " I " ; 
predicate "press. " Subject of the second member 
"I" ; predicate "know. "] 

(£) Mephistopheles is not personally disagreeable, and is 
exceedingly well-bred in society ; and he should come 
tete-a-tete with Mrs. Rawdon Crawley. [Compound.] 

(j) I believe you. [Simple.] 

(k) The drowsy tune of a hand organ rises from the square, 
and Italy comes singing upon the sound. [Com- 
pound. ] 



SEPARATIVE PUNCTUATION 



115 



(I) Apollo laughed. [Simple.] 

(m) Twenty years ago there was no lovelier piece of lowland 
scenery in South England, nor any more pathetic in 
the world, by its expression of sweet human character 
and life, than that immediately bordering on the 
sources of the Wandle, and including the lower moors 
of Addington, and the villages of Beddington and Car- 
shalton, with all their pools and streams. [Simple.] 



Of the following expressions, each is a group of tivo or Not single 
more complete independent predications ; none is a single P redlca - 
complete predication (see Sections 239, 240) : 



(a) He is not an extinct volcano ; he is the dead stick of a 
rocket. [Two complete independent predications.] 

(&) He sang ; he danced ; he laughed ; he was the soul of 
gayety. [Four complete independent predications.] 

(c) He was ambitious ; therefore I slew him. [Two com- 

plete independent predications.] 

(d) Have I been niggardly ? have I grudged you any pleas- 

ure ? [Two complete independent predications.] 

(e) This is the reason : Jennings is the more capable man. 

[Two complete independent predications.] 
(/) It is my property ; give it to me. [Two complete inde- 
pendent predications. ] 



244. A virtual complete independent predication is a Virtual 
word or a group of words occurring in connected dis- tions 1 ^" 
course, not grammatically connected with any words pre- 
ceding or following, not interpolated in a predication * or 
attached to one in thought, and not constituting a predi- 
cation, though usually equivalent to a complete inde- 
pendent predication. 1 There are many kinds of virtual 
complete independent predications, among which may be 
mentioned the following : 

(a) Questions and answers from which some elements Questions 
of a predication are omitted because easily understood g^ r g n " 
from what precedes. Such are the italicized expressions 
following : 

i See 236, 243. 



116 



PUNCTUATION 



(1) You ask whether he knows. Greek. No. Greek was 

not taught when he attended the school. ["No" is 
equivalent to the predication "He does not know 
Greek."] 

(2) Was the full value received ? By no means. The 

house was sold for only five thousand dollars. ["By 
no means " is equivalent to the predication " The full 
value was by no means received."] 

(3) Was this illegal ? Of course. I never knew a plainer 

case of illegality. [" Of course " is equivalent to the 
predication " This was of course illegal."] 

(4) "I have to buy a good many steel traps." — "Steel 

traps? Whyf" 1 [" Steel traps?" is equivalent to 
the predication " You have to buy many steel traps ? " 
" Why ? " is equivalent to the predication " Why do 
you have to buy steel traps ? "] 

(5) The accident was of course due to some one's mistake. 

Whose ? [" Whose ? " is equivalent to the predica- 
tion " It was due to whose mistake ? "] 

Introduc- (b) Expressions introducing a topic or concluding the 

concluding discussion of a topic. For example : 

(1) Now as to your last question: When our agreement 
was made, I believed . . . ["Now as to your last 

question" is equivalent to the predication "Now I 
will speak as to your last question."] 

(2) So much for your last question. I believe I have noth- 

ing more to say. ["So much for your last question " 
is equivalent to the predication "I. say so much for 
your last question."] 

Salutations (c) Salutations. For example : 

(1) I must go now. Good-by. I will see you later. 

[" Good-by " is an abbreviation of the predication 
" God be with you."] 

(2) Good morning, boys. Are you out for a walk? ["Good 

morning, boys" is equivalent to the predication "I 
wish you a good morning, boys."] 

(d) Expressions more or less exclamatory, from which 
some of the elements essential to a predication are omitted 
on account of emotion. For example : 



expres- 
sions 



Exclama- 
tions 



(1) A cup of water ! Quick! 

(2) The chaplain praised you ! 

saw the chaplain. 



The chaplain ! You never 



SEPARATIVE PUNCTUATION 



117 



(3) That's mine. Hands off! Let go, I tell you. 

The following are miscellaneous examples of virtual Miscel- 
complete independent predications : 



I am as- 



How 



We 



All aboard! It's time for us to go. 

"I found it on the lake shore." — "Really? 

tonished." 
" He says it's too small." — " Too small, indeed ! 

much does he want ? " 
He thinks we are ruled by reason. Dismal error ! 

are ruled by the newspapers. 
Can I explain it ? Nothing easier. The defendant and 
the plaintiff were in collusion. 
(/) I see how it's done. Perfectly simple. Now let me try. 
(g) Is that my hat? Thanks. Have you found yours ? 
(h) " I am the watchman."— u You the watchman ! Non- 
sense/ " 
Your health. May you live long. 
Is he gone ? Well, so much the better. We are well rid 

of him. 
How touching ! I never heard the like of it. 
Will you sit?" — " If you please. I am very tired." 
(m) " Was he mad ? " — " Perhaps. That would explain 

some of the facts." 
(n) Hello, old man. Going swimming to-day? Fine weather. 



(a) 
(») 

(c) 



(0 

U) 

(*) 
(I) 



laneous 
examples 
of virtual 
predica- 
tions 



If it is now clear to the reader what the terms com- 
plete independent predication and virtual complete 
independent predication mean, we may proceed with 
our exposition of separative punctuation. 

245. Separative punctuation, let it be once more Two 
recalled, is the separation, by points, of consecutive parts oi^separa- 
of connected discourse. Now, all connected discourse isftivepunc- 
• made up of a succession of complete independent predi- 
I cations, actual or virtual. 1 The first thing that separative 
punctuation does is to separate every complete independ- 
ent predication from the following one by certain points 
agreed upon by custom for this purpose. This is called End punc- 
end punctuation, because it consists in placing points at tuatlon 

1 See 243, 244. 



118 



PUNCTUATION 



Interior 
punctu- 
ation 



End punc- 
tuation 



Interior 
punctua- 
tion 



the end of every complete independent predication. The 
second thing that separative punctuation does is to sepa- 
rate one member from a following member within a com- 
plete independent predication by certain points agreed 
upon by custom for this purpose. This is called interior 
punctuation. Separative punctuation is thus divided 
into two classes — end punctuation and interior punctu- 
ation. 

Consider the following passage, printed without punctua- 
tion : 

The men all wounded their hands and faces bloody 
from the thorns in the underbrush tried to pass the 
sentry struck and kicked and knocked about the gate 
had been rushed so suddenly that he could not even 
snatch up his gun was helpless but more serious obsta- 
cles soon presented themselves 

The separative punctuation of this passage consists, first, 
in separating its complete independent predications by 
placing the proper end mark between them — i.e., at the 
place indicated below ; 

The men all wounded their hands and faces bloody 
from the thorns in the underbrush tried to pass || the 
sentry struck and kicked and knocked about the gate 
had been rushed so suddenly that he could not even 
snatch up his gun was helpless but more serious obsta- 
cles soon presented themselves 

second, in separating certain consecutive parts within the 
predications by placing tli3 proper interior marks between 
them — i.e., at the places indicated below. 

The men | all wounded | their hands and faces 
bloody from the thorns in the underbrush | tried to 
pass || the sentry | struck and kicked and knocked 
about | the gate had been rushed so suddenly that 
he could not even snatch up his gun | was helpless | 
but more serious obstacles soon presented themselves 

246. The difference between end punctuation and in- 
terior punctuation is a very important thing for a student 



A WORKING SYSTEM 119 

of punctuation to understand; for the confusion of the Impor- 

two — the use of end punctuation where interior punctu- t^dis- 

, ation belongs, or vice versa — is the worst possible blun- tinction 

M der in punctuation. 

A WORKING SYSTEM OF SEPARATIVE 
PUNCTUATION * 

247. The rules of separative punctuation are numer- Seven 
ous ; they cannot all be reduced to a scheme that can be eminent 6 " 
grasped in a few minutes of study. But among these 
numerous rules there are seven which, in ordinary prose, 

need to be applied oftener than all the rest put together. 
In order to punctuate well, one must know all the rules ; 
but one can punctuate fairly if one knows and applies 
only the seven referred to above. These rules will now 
be presented to the reader, so that he may get quickly 
a working system of punctuation. In order that the 
presentation may be as concise as possible, these seven 
rules are here given without mention of certain un- 
important exceptions and modifications which are allow- 
able in some cases. To trouble the reader with these at 
this point would only interfere with the present purpose, 
which is to help the reader to get under way as expedi- 
tiously as possible. Mention of the modifications and 
exceptions is therefore reserved for the more complete 
discussion to be given later. Meanwhile, if the reader 
applies the following seven rules rigorously and without 
exception, he will in no case go -astray ; for the exceptions 
and modifications above referred to are all merely per- 
missible — not obligatory. 

248. At the end of a complete independent predica- I. End 
tion 2 that is declarative or imperative, put a period, a ^ ion c 
colon, or a semicolon — a period in most cases; 

1 See Exercises 684 ft . 2 See 243. 



120 PUNCTUATION 

End punc- (a) Right : This is my house. Leave it. 
tuation 

a colon if the predication formally introduces a following 

one; 

(&) Right: I command it for this reason : you have impu- 
dently intruded where you are not wanted. 

a semicolon if the predication is otherwise closely related 
to the following one. 

(c) Right : Leave this house ; you are not wanted here. 

(d) Right : He has wronged me ; I demand redress. 

When the predication is followed by a predication intro- 
duced by a conjunctive adverb (so, therefore, hence, 
however, yet, still, nevertheless, moreover, farther, 
furthermore, accordingly, besides, also, thus, then, 
indeed, otherwise), use a period or a semicolon — not a 
comma. 

(e) Right : It was dark. Therefore I went cautiously. 
Right : It was dark ; therefore I went cautiously. 

Never leave the end of a complete independent predica- 
tion unmarked by any point. 

(/) BAD : It makes no difference where or how they meet 
they are always glad to see each other. 
Right : Ic makes no difference where or how they meet ; 
they are always glad to see each other. 
(g) BAD : I must go give me my hat. 
Right : I must go. Give me my hat. 

Never put a comma at the end of a complete independent 
predication. 

(ft) BAD : Soon after Easter I went home, there all the trees 
were in bud. 
Right : Soon after Easter I went home. There all the 
trees were in bud. 
(i) BAD: One look at him was enough, he was clearly a 
member of the police force. 
Right : One look at him was enough ; he was clearly a 
member of the police force. 



A WORKING SYSTEM 



121 



( j) BAD : The first thing we had to do was to secure a per- 
mit to go through the house, having secured this per- 
mit, we proceeded to the east entrance. 
Right : The first thing we had to do was to secure a 
permit to go through the house. Having secured this 
permit, we proceeded to the east entrance. 

249. Between coordinate clauses 1 of a compound II. Coordi- 
predication, 2 put a comma or a semicolon — usually a "lauses 
comma. 

(a) Right : Along the east side are a number of plum trees, 

and several flower beds dot the lawn near by. 

(b) Right : He waved his hand, and the train started. 

(c) Right : He is rich and respected ; but what good does 

it do him ? 

250. Put a comma between an adverbial clause 1 and III. Ad- 
its principal clause 1 when the adverbial clause precedes, clauses 
but usually not when it follows the principal clause. 

(a) Right : When the ship is in, the lock is closed. 

(b) Right : The lock is closed when the ship is in. 

(c) Right : If I can, I will remove it. 
(cZ) Right : I will remove it if I can. 

251. Put a comma between a relative clause 1 and its IV. Rela- 

antecedent : if the clause is non-restrictive, 3 and in that douses 
case only; never put a comma between a restrictive 3 
relative clause and its antecedent. 

(a) Right : In 1606 Shakespeare wrote Macbeth, which is 
his shortest play. [Non-restrictive.] 

(6) Right : A braggart is one who uses boastful language. 
[Restrictive.] 

(c) Right : Shakespeare's plays which were written in the 
years 1604-1609 are all tragic and somber. [Restric- 
tive. ] 

Put a comma after a non-restrictive relative clause, 
as well as before, if the clause does not complete the 
independent predication. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238-210. 3 g ee 252. 



122 



PUNCTUATION 



Meaning 
of restric- 
tive and 
non-re- 
strictive 



(d) Right : Shakespeare's Macbeth, which is his shortest^ 
play, was written in 1606. 

252. A restrictive relative clause is a relative clause 1 
the omission of which would make the principal clause 
meaningless or would change its meaning. A non-re- 
strictive relative clause is one without which the prin- 
cipal clause would have the same meaning. For example, 
in sentence b above, the clause " who uses boastful lan- 
guage " is restrictive, because if it were omitted, we should 
have "A braggart is one," which is meaningless. In 
sentence c, the clause " which were written in the years 
1604-1609" is restrictive, because if it were omitted, we 
should have " Shakespeare's plays are all tragic and som- 
ber," which has an entirely different meaning from that 
of " Shakespeare's plays which were WTitten in the years 
1604-1609 are all tragic and somber." On the other 
hand, "which is his shortest play," in sentences a and 
d, is a non-restrictive clause, because if it were omitted, 
we should have " In 1606 Shakespeare wrote Macbeth" 
and " Shakespeare's Macbeth was written in 1606," which 
have the same meaning as in the original sentences. 

V. Errone- 253. Put a comma between two consecutive elements 
within a predication if those elements w r ould be liable, 
were there no point between them, to be erroneously 
joined in reading. 

(a) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD: On the path leading to the 
cellar steps were heard. 

Clear : On the path leading to the cellar, steps were 
heard. 

(b) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD: Outside the yard looked cold 
and cheerless. 

Clear : Outside, the yard looked cold and cheerless. 

(c) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD : Ever since I have taken 
daily practice on the parallel bars. 

Clear : Ever since, I have taken daily practice on the 
parallel bars. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp . 360 ff. 



ous junc- 
tion 



A WORKING SYSTEM 123 

254. When the syntactic l relation between two mem- VI. Inter- 
bers of a predication would, because of intervening words, ^JJ^lf 
not be immediately clear were no punctuation used, in- 
close the intervening words between commas. 

(a) Right : I supposed, to tell the truth, that it was a pencil. 
lb) Right : His refusal to be a candidate, however, is hard 
to explain. 

(c) Right : Ruling pens, like any other sharp instrument, be- 

come dull with use. 

(d) Right : He left the chamber for the purpose, as he said, 

of consulting the duke. 

255. Never put a period before an appositive, 1 a par- VII. Pe- 
ticipial phrase, 1 an absolute phrase, 1 a subordinate clause, 1 rioc a 
or any other expression that is not an independent predi- 
cation, 2 but the concluding member of a predication. 

(a) BAD : There are seven buildings around the quadrangle. 

Three on each side and one at the north end. 
Right : There are seven buildings around the quadrangle, 
three on each side and one at the north end. 

(b) BAD : Helen had never known any one intimately ex- 

cept her father. Her mother having died when Helen 
was a baby. 
Right : Helen had never known any one intimately ex- 
cept her father, her mother having died when Helen 
was a baby. 

(c) BAD : She could judge the problems of life impersonally 

and without prejudice or bias. A power rarely found 
in a woman writer. 
Right : She could judge the problems of life imperson- 
ally and without prejudice or bias, a power rarely 
found in a woman writer. 

(d) BAD : A man in a men's class can quite properly wear 

a flannel shirt. While in a class where there were 
women this would be in bad taste. 
Right : A man in a men's class can quite properly wear 
a flannel shirt, while in a class where there were 
women this would be in bad taste. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 242. 



124 



PUNCTUATION 



A MORE COMPLETE SYSTEM OF SEPARATIVE 
PUNCTUATION 

256. In the following sections will be presented the 
remaining rules of punctuation, which are less fre- 
quently applied than the seven rules given above ; and 
along with the new rules, the seven already given will be 
repeated, in their proper connections, with fuller explana- 
tions and with statements of modifications. 



Declara- 
tive and 
impera- 
tive predi- 
cations 



Period 



END PUNCTUATION 
Declarative and Imperative Predications! 

257. The end of a complete independent predication, 2 
actual or virtual, 2 that is declarative or imperative 
should be marked by a period, a colon, a semicolon, or 
an exclamation mark. The cases in which these several 
marks are proper will be stated in the following sections. 

258. Any complete independent declarative or im- 
perative predication may correctly be closed by the 
period, though the other end points are preferable in 
many cases. 

(a) Right: Yonder proud ships lying at the foot of this 
mount are not means of annoyance to you, but your 
country's- own means of distinction and defense. 
Right : All is peace. 

Right : But, alas, you are not all here. Time and the 
sword have thinned your ranks. Prescott, Putnam, 
Stark, Brooks, Read, Pomeroy, Bridge, our eyes seek 
for you in vain amid this broken band. 
Right : Stop. Give me that paper. 
Right : Halt. Fall out to water the elephant. Be 
quick. 
(/) Right : You ask whether my uncle knows. He does. 

He approves also. 
(g) Right : The hope has failed. It was a delusion. 
(h) Right : Everywhere practicable, everywhere efficient, it 
has an arm a thousand times stronger than that of 



(&) 

(c) 



(d) 



l See Exercises 684-699, 734-738. 



2 See 243, 244. 



END PUNCTUATION 



125 



Hercules, and a thousand times as many hands as 
belonged to Briareus. Steam is found in triumphant 
operation on the seas ; and under the influence of its 
strong propulsion, the gallant ship 

" Against the wind, against the tide, 
Still steadies with an upright keel." 

(i) Eight: That's right. Bind him. Now gag him. 

(i) Right: Wait. I have a question. Have you regis- 
tered ? 

(k) Right : Come on. The way is clearer now. 

(?) Right : I don't know whom you mean. I never knew 
a man named Scudamour. 

(m) Right : Do it now. Don't wait. 

(n) Right : I never knew. At least I don't remember. 

(o) Right : Here's trouble. I've lost my portfolio. 

(p) Right : We are too late. She has gone. 



Very well. Will 



Virtual Predications 

(q) Right: "Give me some water." — - l 
you have Apollinaris ? " 

(r) Right : Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap ? 

(s) Right: " Telephone to Evans." — " All right. Just as 
you please. You know your business best." 

(t) Right : " Will you do me a favor ? " — " With pleasure. 
I am glad to be able to serve you." 

(u) Right : " What do you think of this tea ? " — " Worth- 
less. I never tasted worse." 

(v) Right : We arrived on Tuesday. Too late. The stock 
had been sold. 

(10) Right : A strange sunset, Mr. Yeo. It forebodes a 
storm, I think. 



Virtual 
predica- 
tions 



259. An independent predication 1 introduced by and, 
but, for, or, or nor may be separated from a preceding 
declarative or imperative predication by the period. 

(a) Right : This is a question the determination of which is 

of the utmost importance to me. And for you your- 
selves, it seems to me, the question is not less grave. 

(b) Right : I cannot speak, to purpose, of anything about 

which I do not care ; and I do not care about this 
building of yours. But when you sent me your in- 
vitation, I could not bluntly decline it. 



New predi- 
cation 
begun 
with and, 
but, etc. 



i See 242. 



126 



PUNCTUATION 



Effect 



Use in 
avoiding 
stringy- 
sentences 



Illogical 
grouping 



(c) Right : This comes from the vastness of art and the 

variety of human organizations. Eor art is so im- 
mense a study that no man ever knew the whole 
truth about it. 

(d) Right : I suppose you treat your churches experimen- 

tally because it does not, you think, matter what mis- 
takes you make in a church. Or do you think that 
this style should be reserved for your churches only ? 

The effect of using the period in this way is to make 
the predication introduced by the conjunction a new 
complete independent predication, standing out distinctly 
from the preceding predication. The effect of using a 
comma or a semicolon instead of the period is to join the 
two predications into a compound predication. It rests 
with the writer to choose which effect he desires. But 
in making the choice, one should bear in mind two con- 
siderations : 

260. To place a comma or a semicolon before a predi- 
cation introduced by and, but, for, or, or nor may make 
the compound predication thus formed stringy and dis- 
pleasing ; in such a case it is better to treat the predica- 
tion introduced by the conjunction as a new complete 
independent predication — i.e., to place a period before 
it. 

STRINGY: He hardly ever spoke a rough or unkind 
word, and one would suppose he had discarded the 
quarter-deck vocabulary entirely, but he had not, for 
sometimes a word slipped from him that recalled to 
poor Hester her husband's evil past. 

Improved : He hardly ever spoke a rough or unkind 
word, and one would suppose he had discarded the 
quarter-deck vocabulary entirely. But he had not, 
for sometimes a word slipped from him that recalled 
to poor Hester her husband's evil past. 

261. To place a comma or a semicolon before a predica- 
tion introduced by and, but, for, or, or nor may produce 
an illogical grouping of the predications in the context. 
When the logical office of the conjunction is to link its 



END PUNCTUATION 127 

predication, not merely to the predication immediately 
preceding, but to a series of predications preceding, the 
conjunction should be preceded by a period. For example, 
consider the following passage: 

(a) ILLOGICAL: Some people prefer to have the hay 
bunched by hand instead of with a horserake. They 
assert that when bunched by hand, the hay is left 
much looser, but this process is much longer than 
bunching with a horserake, and the advantage is too 
small to compensate for the expenditure of time. 

The punctuation here is illogical, for this reason : The 

thought of the passage consists of two parts (1) a 

statement of the views of "some people," and (2) an argu- 
ment against those views, this part introduced by "but." 
The expression "but this process" etc., is, in thought, 
set'over against "Some people . . . looser." But as the 
passage is punctuated, " but this process " etc. seems to 
be set over against " They assert." The passage should 
be punctuated as follows : 

Right : Some people prefer to have the hay bunched by 
hand instead of with a horserake ; they assert that 
when bunched by hand, the hay is left much looser. 
But this process is much longer than bunching with a 
horserake, and the advantage is too small to compen- 
sate for the expenditure of time. 

Likewise : 

(b) BAD : I consider their conduct very prudent. I con- 

sider it very conscientious also, and now let us imagine 
what would have been the consequence of the course 
recommended by their critics. 
Right : I consider their conduct very prudent ; I con- 
sider it very conscientious also. And now let us imag- 
ine what would have been the consequences of the 
course recommended by their critics. 

(c) BAD : All of us acknowledge the excellent results ac- 

complished by fraternal insurance societies for the 
larse class of people who, but for such societies, would 
not carry any insurance whatever. There is no con- 
flict, or should be none, between fraternal and other 



128 PUNCTUATION 

insurance institutions, for all have their proper places, 
but it is nevertheless a serious problem how to deal 
with the very great number of associations styling 
themselves fraternal whose actions toward their mem- 
bers are of a most unfraternal character. 
Right : All of us acknowledge the excellent results ac- 
complished by fraternal insurance societies for the 
large class of people who, but for such societies, would 
not carry any insurance whatever ; there is no conflict, 
or should be none, between fraternal and other insur- 
ance institutions, for all have their proper places. But 
it is nevertheless a serious problem how to deal with 
the very great number of associations styling them- 
selves fraternal whose actions toward their members 
are of a most unfraternal character. 

(d) BAD : Let us by all means regard the welfare of future 

generations. Let us not forget that we hold this 
beautiful city in trust for our children's children, and 
yet we may without impropriety give a little thought 
to our own present happiness. 
Right : Let us by all means regard the welfare of future 
generations ; let us not forget that we hold this 
beautiful city in trust for our children's children. 
And yet we may without impropriety give a little 
thought to our own present happiness. 

(e) BAD: I do not consider it tragic, as the gentleman who 

preceded me does. Nor do I agree with my colleague 
in calling it pathetic, for what is tragedy and what is 
pathos ? . . . 
Right : I do not consider it tragic, as the gentleman who 
preceded me does ; nor do I agree with my colleague 
in calling it pathetic. For what is tragedy, and what 
is pathos ? . . . 

Colon 262. A complete independent predication, 1 actual or 

virtual, 1 which formally introduces a following predica- 
tion, should be closed by the colon. (Cf. Rules 205, 206.) 

(a) Right : The following incident then occurred : a white- 
robed woman glided out, said she was the ghost of 
my mother, and fell on my neck. [205] 

(&) Right : Mr. Foster spoke as follows : " My friends, it is 
with deep emotion that I rise to address you ..." 

(c) Right : He will probably proceed thus : " Dearly be- 
loved, on Sunday next ..." 

i See 243, 244. 



END PUNCTUATION 129 

(d) Right : Follow these rules : Speak calmly. Stand still. 

Be brief. [206] 

(e) Right : There is only one thing left for rne : I must 

commit hara-kiri. 

Virtual Predications 

(/) Right : To illustrate my meaning : Have you ever ob- Virtual 
served closely one of the maps posted by the Weather predica- 
Bureau? . . . [206] tlons 

(g) Right : Now for the gentleman" 1 s alleged refutation of 
my chief argument : Do I understand the gentleman 
to assert . . . [206] 

263. The semicolon may be placed after a complete Semi- 
independent declarative or imperative predication, 1 actual co on 
or virtual, 1 which does not formally introduce the fol- 
lowing predications, but is otherwise related with particu- 
lar closeness to it. For example : 

264. The semicolon may be used after a predication Explana- 
followed by one which explains it or some part of it. 

Right : Neagle was appointed to act as the judge's body- 
guard ; this precaution was deemed necessary on ac- 
count of Terry's threats. 

265. The semicolon may be used after a predication Cause 
followed by one stating a cause. 

Right : Escape by the stairs was impossible ; the whole 
staircase was in flames. 

266. The semicolon may be used after a predication Conse- 
followed by one stating a. consequence. quence 

Right : The whole staircase was in flames ; escape by 
that way was impossible. 

267. The semicolon may be used after a predication Instance 
followed by an instance or illustration. 

Right : He is patient, forbearing, and resigned, on 
philosophical principles ; he submits to pain, because 

i See 243, 244. 



130 



PUNCTUATION 



Antith- 
esis 



Positive 

and 

negative 



Negative 

and 

positive 



Reinforce- 
ment 



Virtual 
predica- 
tions 



Repetition 



it is inevitable, to bereavement, because it is irrepa- 
rable, and to death, because it is his destiny. 
Right : Profound scholarship is compatible with poetic 
grace ; Milton and Arnold were laborious students 
and makers of beautiful poetry. 

268. The semicolon may be used between two predi- 
cations forming an antithesis. 1 

Right : Brooks was an impostor and a demagogue ; 
Abbot was the personification of conscience and sin- 
cerity. Abbot's chief recommendation was his im- 
maculate record ; the chief care of Brooks was to 
cover his record. 

269. The semicolon may be used after a positive 
predication followed by a negative predication supple- 
menting it. 

Right : He went to Mexico ; he did not go to Canada. 

270. The semicolon may be used after a negative 
predication followed by a positive predication supple- 
menting it. 

Right : He did not come in a carriage ; he walked,. 

271. The semicolon may be used after a predication 
followed by one reenforcing it. 

Right: He was a master of the art of deception ; no 
man ever surpassed him in the subtlety of his lies. 

Virtual Predications 

Right : Are they neglected ? Not at all J they are 

scrupulously cared for. 
Right : " Can you box ?*' — " Yes; I have studied the 

art under the best masters." 
Right : " Should I apologize ? " — " Certainly ; it is 

plainly your duty." 

272. The semicolon may be used after a predication 
that expresses the name or nearly the same idea in 
different words. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



END PUNCTUATION 



131 



Right : A good name is rather to be chosen than riches ; 
loving favor is better than silver and gold. 

273. The semicolon may be used between predications Group of 
giving instances of a general statement preceding. 

Right : Prices of food stuffs were very high. Butter 
cost thirty-five cents a pound ; the price of eggs 
varied, but was never lower than forty cents a dozen ; 
meat was so costly that only the rich could buy it. 

274. When the semicolon is thus used, the introduc- 
tory statement may be followed by a colon. 

Right : We have several things to do : we must first 
buy our tickets ; we must check our trunks ; we must 
send a telegram to our host ; we must buy the bride a 
lamp. 

275. The semicolon may be used between predications Group 
that together go to make up one impression. one mmg 

sreneral 
Right : He has his eyes on all his company ; he is tender impression 
towards the bashful, gentle towards the distant, and 
merciful toward the absurd ; he can recollect to whom 
he is speaking ; he guards against unseasonable allu- 
sions, or topics which may irritate ; he is seldom prom- 
inent in conversation, and never wearisome. 

276. Wherever the semicolon may be used between Period 
two independent predications, the period may be used with colon? 1 " 
perfect propriety (see Rule 258). 

Right: The whole staircase was in flames ; escape by 

that way was impossible. 
Right : The whole staircase was in flames. Escape by 

that way was impossible. 
Right : He did not come in a carriage ; he walked. 
Right : He did not come in a carriage. He walked. 

The effect of the period between two independent predi- 
cations is to make each stand out more distinctly ; the 
effect of the semicolon is to join the two closely together. 
It rests with the writer to choose which effect he desires. 



132 



PUNCTUATION 



Abuse of 
semicolon 



Exclama- 
tion mark 



Conjunc- 
tive ad- 
verbs 



277. As a means of combining predications, the semi- 
colon is sometimes abused. A series of predications 
should not be grouped by means of semicolons, unless the 
group so formed has a distinct and readily felt unity. 

278. The exclamation mark may be used after a com- 
plete independent declarative or imperative predication 
supposed to be uttered with emotion. 

Right : This is a pretty state of affairs ! 
Right : Take off your hat, you rogue ! 

Virtual Predications 

Right : Up with your flag, sergeant ! What are you 

about there ? 
Right : A fine story, truly ! We don't believe a word 

of it. 

279. Two consecutive predications, the second intro- 
duced by a conjunctive adverb 1 without a pure conjunc- 
tion 2 do not form a compound predication (see Section 
240); the separation of them, therefore, is a matter of 
end punctuation, not of interior punctuation. Hence : 
280. A complete independent predication, 3 actual or 
virtual, 3 introduced by one of the conjunctive adverbs 
(so, therefore, hence, however, yet, still, nevertheless, 
moreover, further, furthermore, accordingly, besides, 
also, thus, then, indeed, otherwise?) without a pure 
conjunction, 2 should be separated from a preceding de- 
clarative predication, not by the comma, but by one of 
the end marks (see Rule 257) — in most cases either 
the period or the semicolon (see Rule 276). 

(a) Right : He showed himself utterly incompetent to per- 
form the duties of his office ; so he was discharged. 
Right : He showed himself utterly incompetent to per- 
form the duties of his office. So he was discharged. 

(6) Right : He feared his wife would be injured by the 



i See 240, note. 



2 See 237. 



3 See 243, 244. 



END PUNCTUATION 133 

corrupt influence of Arthur's court. So he deter- Conjunc- 
mined to withdraw with her to his own home. tive ad- 

Right : He feared his wife would be injured by the cor- verbs 
rupt influence of Arthur's court ; so he determined 
to withdraw with her to his own home. 

(c) Right : It was very hot ; so I went without my coat. 
Right : It was very hot. So I went without my coat. 

(d) Right : I saw no reason for moving ; therefore I stayed 

still. 
Right : I saw no reason for moving. Therefore I stayed 
still. 

(e) Right: He knew they had overlooked his breach of the 

rules; hence his elation. [Virtual predication.] 
Right: He knew they had overlooked his breach of the 
rules. Hence his elation. 

(/) Right : The hinge was broken ; hence there was diffi- 
culty in securing the door. 
Right : The hinge was broken. Hence there was diffi- 
culty in securing the door. 

(g) Right : The door could not be fastened tight. However, 
they felt fairly safe. 
Right : The door could not be fastened tight ; however, 
they felt fairly safe. 

(h) Right : The scales did not weight accurately, and the 
measures had false bottoms ; still the customers made 
no complaint. 
Right : The scales did not weigh accurately, and the 
measures had false bottoms. Still the customers 
made no complaint. 

(i) Right : Vance's coat was moth-eaten and threadbare. 
Nevertheless he went manfully and cheerfully with the 
others. 
Right : Vance's coat was moth-eaten and threadbare ; 
nevertheless he went manfully and cheerfully with 
the others. 

(j) Right : Now every one seemed absorbed in the proceed- 
ings on the platform ; accordingly Harris slipped out 
without being observed. 
Right : Now every one seemed absorbed in the proceed- 
ings on the platform. Accordingly Harris slipped 
out without being observed* 

(k) Right : The wood had warped and rotted. Besides, I 
doubted whether the thing would fit. 
Right : The wood had warped and rotted ; besides, I 
doubted whether the thing would fit. 

(7) Right : The president graciously bowed ; then Hughes 
began his speech. 



134 



PUNCTUATION 



So that 
and 
so as to 



So with- 
out any 
point 



Paren- 
thetic 
phrases 



Right : The president graciously bowed. Then Hughes 
began his speech. . 

(m) Right : He must understand Russian. Otherwise how 
could he have got the password ? < 

Right : He must understand Russian ; otherwise how 
could he have got the password ? 

281. Rule 280 is sometimes erroneously applied to ex- 
pressions introduced by the phrases so that and so as 
to. The rule concerns independent predications intro- 
duced by so : but so that and so as to never introduce 
independent' predications; so that always introduces 
subordinate clauses, 1 and so as to always introduces in- 
finitive phrases. 1 Rule 280 therefore has nothing to do 
with so that and so as to. These expressions should 
be preceded by no point at all, or else by the comma 
(see Rules 358, 359). 

Right : We strapped it so that it would remain in place. 

ror Q ""I 

Right •' We strapped it so as to hold it steady. [358.] 
Right : A heavy mist hung over the lagoon, so that we 

had to proceed cautiously. [359.] 
Right : Stand up straight, Grady, so as to take your 

share of the load. [359.] 

282. It is a particularly bad fault to write an independent 
predication introduced by a conjunctive adverb 2 without 
putting any point between it and the preceding predication. ' 

BAD: He was found incompetent so the secretary re- 
moved him. ott 

Right : He was found incompetent ; so the secretary 
removed him. [280.] 

Right: He was found incompetent. So the secretary 
removed him. [276.] 

283 Two consecutive predications, the second intro- 
duced by a parenthetic 3 phrase such as for example^ 
that is, in fact, do not form a compound predication; 

i See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 240, note. 3 See 345, 392, 402. * See 238-240. 



END PUNCTUATION 135 

the separation of them, therefore, is a matter of end 
punctuation, not of interior punctuation. Hence: 284. 
When one of the parenthetic expressions for example, For ex- 
for instance, that is, that is to say, in other words, at ^^ 
any rate, on the other hand, on the contrary, to tell in fact, 
the truth, as a matter of fact, in fact, i.e., and e.g. in- etc ' 
troduces a complete independent predication, 1 the expres- 
sion should be preceded, not by a comma, but by a period, 
a colon, or a semicolon, according to the relation of the 
predication to the preceding one (see Rules 257, 262, 263). 

(a) Right: There-is a vital difference between them. That 
is, one is an artist, the other a statesman. [258.] 
Right : There is a vital difference between them : that 
is, one is an artist, the other a statesman. [262.] 

(6) Right : He had to work without the tools usually em- 
ployed. For example, he had no hammer and no 
ax. [258.] 
Right : He had to work without the tools usually em- 
ployed ; for example, he had no hammer and no ax. 
[276.] 

285. Note that a comma should in every case follow the Comma 
parenthetic expression. entl^eSc^ 

BAD : He dressed ga*udily, for instance : he wore an ex P ression 

orange necktie. 
Right : He dressed gaudily. For instance, he wore an 

orange necktie. [258, 403.] 
Right : He dressed gaudily ; for instance, he wore an 

orange necktie. [276, 403.] 

286. Parenthetic 2 predications are excepted from Rule Paren- 
oKy thetic 

predica- 
Right : I am not now speaking of fancy (concerning this tions 
subject, see Chapter LXXXVII) but only of imagina- excepted 
tion. [424-426.] 

Interrogative Predications 

287. A complete independent predication 1 (actual or Inter- 
virtual) 1 which is interrogative in sense, whether inter- ^s^ 1 ^ 

1 See 243, 244. 2 See 392. cations 



136 



PUNCTUATION 



Indirect 
questions 



Paren- 
thetic 
questions 
not 
excepted 



rogative in form or not, should be followed by a question 
mark. 

(a) Right : Where were you ? 

(&) Right: "I was at the station." — " You were at the 
station?" 

(c) Right: "I saw our faithful ally." — " Our faithful 
ally? Whom do you mean?" [Virtual predica- 
tion.] 

288. An indirect question, 1 however, should not be 
followed by a question mark. 

(a) Right : He asked what was wrong. 
(&) Right : The question whether he did right is still unde- 
cided. 

(c) Right : What is to become of the Siamese is a puzzling 

question. 

(d) Right : How we are to do it is the question. 
But note : 

(e) Right : How are we to do it ? is the question. ["How 

are we to do it ? " is a direct question, used as the 
■• subject of "is." Cf. " Down with the foreigners I '" 
was the cry. ] 

289. Parenthetic 2 predications are not excepted from 
Rule 287. 

Right : Mr. Avery (isn't that his name ?) has moved 
into the office. [424-426.] 



Exclama- 
tive predi- 
cations 



Exclamative Predications 

290. A complete independent predication 3 (actual or 
virtual) 3 which is exclamative in sense (though it may be 
interrogative in form) should be followed by an exclama- 
tion mark. 

(a) Right : What a noble patriot he was ! 

(b) Right : " How terrible was the blow ! " exclaimed Ives, 

shocked. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 392. 3 g e e 243, 244. 



END PUNCTUATION 



137 



(c) Right : How terrible ! Can I do nothing to help her ? 

[Virtual predication.] 

(d) Right: What a joke! Excuse my laughter. [Virtual 

predication.] 

291. Parenthetic predications are not excepted from Paren- 

Kule 290. thetic ex- 

clamation 
Right : Mr. Avery (what a queer fellow he is !) has not ex * 
moved out again. [424-426.] cepted 

Incorrect Omission of End Punctuation 

292. The end of a complete independent predication l Omission 
(actual or virtual) l should not be left unmarked by any p Un ^uia- 
point. tion 

(a) BAD : I hid myself high up in the haymow my brother 
could not find me for a long time. 
Right : I hid myself high up in the haymow. My 
brother could not find me for a long time. [258.] 
(5) BAD : It was of no use I could not persuade her. 

Right : It was of no use. I could not persuade her. 

[258.] 

(c) BAD : One moment please what is your name ? [ u One 

moment please" is a virtual complete independent 

predication ; see Section 244. ] 

Right : One moment, please. What is your name ? 

[258.] 
Right : One moment, please ; what is your name ? [276.] 
((f) BAD: "I am ready." — "All right come along. 1 ' 
["All right" is a virtual complete independent 
predication ; see Section 244.] 
Right : " All right. Come along." 
Right : " All right ; come along." 

(e) BAD: "Can he drive a motor ? "- 

think he was an ignoramus ? " 

virtual complete independent predication ; see Section 

244 a.] 

Right : "Of course. Did you think he was an igno- 
ramus ?" [258.] 
(/) BAD : Good-by I'll see you later. ["Good-by" is a 
virtual complete independent predication ; see Section 
244 c(l).] 

Right : Good-by. I'll see you later. [258.] 



Virtual 
predica- 
tions 



[258.] 
[276.] 

"Of course did you 
["Of course " is a 



i See 243, 244. 



138 



PUNCTUATION 



The 

comma 

fault 



Virtual 
predica- 
tions 



The Cardinal Error of End Punctuation 

293. The Comma Fault. — A comma should never be 
placed at the end of a complete independent predication * 
(actual or virtual.) 1 The violation of this rule is called 
the Comma Fault. It is the worst fault a writer can 
commit in end punctuation, and one of the two worst 
faults in all punctuation (the other is the Period Fault ; 
see Rule 463). 

(a) BAD : Our men had won every preceding game of the 

season, this made them overconfident. 
Right : Our men had won every preceding game of the 

season. This made them overconfident. [258.] 
Right : Our men had won every preceding game of the 

season ; this made them overconfident. [276.] 
(&) BAD : I want to point out one defect in the plan*, the 

salary of the president is too small. 
Right : I want to point out one defect in the plan. The 

salary of the president is too small. [258.] 
Right : I want to point out one defect in the plan : the 

salary of the president is too small. [262.] 

(c) BAD : Then I hurried to breakfast, it was a very good 

meal but I had only six minutes to spend on it. 
Right : Then I hurried to breakfast. It was a very good 
meal, but I had only six minutes to spend on it. 
[258.] 

(d) BAD : Where is he, I want to speak to him. 

Right : Where is he ? I want to speak to him. [287.] 

(e) BAD : Are the European forests neglected ? By no 

means, the government takes thoroughgoing measures 
to preserve them. [ u By no means" is a virtual 
complete independent predication ; see Section 244 a.] 
Right : By no means. The government takes thorough- 
going measures to preserve them. [258.] 
Right : By no means ; the government takes thorough- 
going measures to preserve them. [270.] 
(/) BAD: Good evening gentlemen, will you come in. 
["Good evening gentlemen" is a virtual complete 
independent predication ; see Section 244 c (2).] 
Right : Good evening, gentlemen. Will you come in ? 
[258.] 
(g) BAD: I sold the goods at a big profit. And not only 
that, I got a charter to Sydney. ["Not only that" 



i See 243, 244. 



END PUNCTUATION 



139 



is a virtual complete independent predication ; see 

Section 244.] 
Right : I sold the goods at a big profit. And not only 

that ; I got a charter to Sydney. [2(33.] 
(h) BAD: "He wrung out four thousand. " — "As much 

as that, I am astonished." [" As much as that" is a 

virtual complete independent predication ; see Section 

244a.] 
Right : As much as that ? I am astonished. [287.] 

294. Most instances of the comma fault arise in the Comma 



for semi- 
colon 



separation of predications closely connected in thought 
— too closely, the writer feels, to be separated by the 
period. Let it be borne in mind that in case of two 
such predications the proper mark is not the comma, but 
the semicolon (see Kule 263). 

295. The comma fault is often committed by the plac- Conjunc- 
ing of a comma before a complete independent predication y^g 
introduced by a conjunctive adverb, such as so, therefore, 

then, thus, however, etc. (see Rules 279, 280). 

BAD : He went below and cut the rope, then he returned 
to the deck. 

Right : He went below and cut the rope. Then he re- 
turned to the deck. [258.] 

Right: He went below and cut the rope; then he re- 
turned to the deck. [276.] 

296. The comma fault is often committed through a For ex- 
writer's failure to observe whether an expression such as Jy^f / s ' 
for example, that is, in fact, etc. introduces an apposi- in fact. 
tive 1 or a complete independent predication (see Rule 

284). 

BAD : I succeed very well with the more mechanical 

studies, for example, I have no trouble at all with 

draughting. 
Right : I succeed very well with the more mechanical 

studies. For example, I have no trouble at all with 

draughting. [258. ] 
Right : I succeed very well with the more mechanical 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



140 



PUNCTUATION 



Direct 
quotations 

Correction 
of the 
error 



studies; for example, I have no trouble at all with 

draughting. [276.] 

297. The comma fault is very often committed through 
violation of Rule 475 (q. v.). 

298. When the comma fault has been committed, it 
should be corrected, not by merely canceling the comma, 
but by substituting for the comma the proper end point 
— usually the period or the semicolon. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 
General Rules 

Erroneous 299. In a simple predication 1 (separate or component), 1 
junction ^ wo consecutive elements which, were there no point 
between them, would be liable to be erroneously joined 
in reading, or would be capable of ludicrous misconstruc- 
tion, should be separated by some point — in most cases 
by a comma. 



While the hungry soldiers 
son of one of the natives 



(a) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD 

were eating a child the 
evidently approached. 

Clear : While the hungry soldiers were eating, a child — 
the son of one of the natives, evidently — approached. 
(p) AMBIGUOUS : Near by the Bradleys' house a low green 
bungalow could be seen. 

Clear : Near by, the Bradleys' house, a low green bun- 
galow, could be seen. 

(c) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD : For her business was never 

so pressing that she could not stop to console a friend 
in trouble ; for him business took precedence of even 
friendship and humanity. 
Clear : For her, business was never so pressing that she 
could not stop to console a friend in trouble ; for him, 
business took precedence of even friendship and hu- 
manity. 

(d) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD: He departed entertaining 

no doubt an unfavorable opinion of his host. 
Clear : He departed entertaining, no doubt, an unfavor- 
able opinion of his host. 

i See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



141 



(e) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD: If space would permit other 
hints might be given. 
Clear : If space would permit, other hints might be given. 
(/) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD : As he approached the house 
looked deserted. 
Clear : As he approached, the house looked deserted. 
(g) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD : Above the snow-capped 
peak of the mountain glistened. 
Right : Above, the snow-capped peak of the mountain 
glistened. 
(h) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD : Within the house looked 
less inviting. 
Right : Within, the house looked less inviting. 
(i) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD: Below the village could be 
indistinctly seen. 
Right : Below, the village could be indistinctly seen, 
(j) LIABLE TO BE MISREAD : Inside the family were 
gathered. 
Right : Inside, the family were gathered. 



venmg 
words : 



(i) Two 
commas 



300. When the syntactic relation between two mem- Inter- 
bers of a simple predication l (separate or component) * 
would, because of intervening words, not be immediately 
clear were' no punctuation used, the intervening words 
should be enclosed between commas, dashes, or paren- 
theses, as follows : 301. Commas should be used in most 
cases. 

(a) Right : He left the council chamber for the purpose, as 
he avowed, of consulting his spiritual director. 

(&) Right : English discourse employing words generally 
approved by good usage, and employing them in the 
senses and in the grammatical functions and combi- 
nations generally approved by good usage, is called 
good English. 

(c) Right: They saved him, in a way which was not gener- 
ally understood, from becoming a bankrupt. 

(ef) Right : It was his duty, as soon as the ship anchored, to 
go ashore with the lady. 

(e) Right : The scene was like what he imagined, ignorant 
as he was, of a theater. 

(/) Right: I am skeptical, more or less, of all his promises. 

(g) Right : He was ignorant, to a remarkable degree, of our 
business methods. 

i See 238, 241. 



142 



PUNCTUATION 



Omission 
of second 
comma 



(ii) Dashes 
or paren- 
theses 



Commas 
with 
dashes : 

When 
wrong 

When 
right 



Comma 
with pa- 
rentheses 



(h) Right : He was, like all his predecessors, averse to in- 
novations. 

302. Do not put one comma before the intervening 
expression and neglect to put another after. Enclose 
the expression between two commas. 

(a) BAD : I will not insist, however on your staying. 
Right : I will not insist, however, on your staying. 

(6) BAD: British cities have, like Topsy "just growed." 
Right: British cities have, like Topsy, " just growed." 

303. When the intervening expression has commas or 
other points within itself, it may be enclosed between 
dashes or parentheses. 

Right : He left the chamber for the purpose — as he ex- 
plicitly declared to Morris, the English ambassador 
— of consulting his spiritual director. 

Right : He left the chamber for the purpose (as he ex- 
plicitly declared to Morris, the English ambassador) 
of consulting his spiritual director. 

304. (a) When dashes are used for this purpose, no 
commas should be used in addition unless a comma 
would be required before the preceding word were the 
matter between the dashes omitted ; in that case a 
comma should precede each dash. (Cf. Kules 308, 309, 
391, 427, 428, 521, 522.) 

Right : If he had refused the offer, — as Clinton, 
Matthews, and Harrison, his old, trusted associates, 
said he did, — ■ I could understand the case. [In " If 
he had refused the offer, I could understand the case," 
a comma is required after " offer" ; see Rule 349. ] 

Right: He refused — at least, so Clinton, Matthews, 
and Harrison all assert — to accept the offer. 

(b) When parentheses are used, no comma should be 
used in addition unless one would be required were the 
parenthesized matter omitted ; in that case a comma 
should follow the second parenthesis. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



143 



Right : I will then (all the draughting, printing, etc. 
being finished) send for you. 

Right : When the work is all done (the draughting, the 
printing, the making of the patterns, and the prepara- 
tion of the furnace), you may send for me. [In 
" When the work is all done, you may send for me," 
a comma is required after " done "; see Rule 349.] 



Separation of Coordinate Elements 

Coordinate Elements without Conjunctions 

305. Two or more adjectives 1 preceding and modifying 
the same noun 1 and not joined by a conjunction 1 or con- 
junctions should be separated by a comma if they are 
coordinate in thought ; but if one adjective is, in sense, 
superposed on the following, these two should not be 
separated by a comma. 



Right : 

Adjectives coordinate in 
thought 

a faithful, sincere friend 

the hot, roaring fire 

a big, healthy man 

The vivacious, charming 
young girl helped the 
wretched, starving news- 
boy. 

my dear, kind, considerate 
father 



Consecu- 
tive ad- 
jectives 



Right : 

First adjective superposed on 

following 
a friendly old man 
a live electric wire 
a big gray cat 

The generous rich girl helped 
the unhappy poor girl. 



a jolly old German fiddler 



306. The last of a series of attributive 1 adjectives pre- Wrong • 
ceding a noun should not be followed by a comma. afterhist 

WRONG : good, hard, practical, work. 
Right : good, hard, practical work. 



307. (a) A member of a predication, grammatically Emenda- 
coordinate 1 with a preceding member, but having the ^ash 
rhetorical l effect of an emendation, should be preceded by 
a dash. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 if. 



144 



PUNCTUATION 



Dash 
following 



Commas 
with 
dashes : 

When 
right 



When 
wrong 



Espe- 
cially - 
dash 



(1) Right: Oh, he was polite enough — polite as a Chester- 

field. 

(2) Right: He was polite — polite as a Chesterfield ; but he 

was also, like Chesterfield, a cynic. [321.] 

(3) Right : Tennyson's poem Lady Clare Vere de Vere is the 

speech of a manly young country fellow to a beautiful 
but heartless lady of high birth, who has attempted to 
amuse herself by breaking his heart — a speech ex- 
pressing disdain for beauty without goodness of heart, 
and contempt for hereditary rank the possessor of 
which lacks true virtue and honor. 

(b) Such a member, if it does not close a simple predica- 
tion l (separate or component), 1 should also be followed by 
a dash. 

(1) Right: He is polite — polite as a Chesterfield — but 

cynical. 

(2) Right: That he was dead — that I should never see him 

again — I could hardly believe. 

308. When an emendation of the kind mentioned above 
is enclosed between dashes, and when, if the emendation 
were omitted, a comma would be required after the pre- 
ceding word, a comma should precede each dash. (Cf. 
Rules~304, 391, 427, 428, 521, 522.) 

(a) Right: If he is so polite, — polite as a Chesterfield, — 
why do you find him so disagreeable ? [349.] 

■ (b) Right : When the weather is bad, — especially when it 
is raining hard, — he is very cross to us all. [349.] 

309. But no comma should be thus used in addition 
to the dashes unless one would be required if the matter 
set off by the dashes were omitted. 

Right : He wept — wept like a child — and called for 
mercy. 

310. Expressions introduced by especially and not 
preceded by a conjunction 2 often stand in the grammati- 
cal and rhetorical relation mentioned in Rule 307. 

1 See .238, 241. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



145 



Such expressions should in that case be set off by a dash 
or enclosed between dashes. (Cf. Rules 360-362.) 

(a) Right: He is fond of music — especially the music of 
the old composers. 

(&) Right : All their hearts — especially Margaret's — were 
gladdened by the news. 

(c) Right : He was determined to see all the public build- 
ings, — especially the sky-scrapers, — though I did 
my best to head him off. [308, 349.] 

311. Note that the especially should not be followed No comma 
by a comma. facially 



Other co- 
ordinate 
members 
without 
conjunc- 
tions : 

(i) Comma 



312. Coordinate 1 members of a predication that are 
not joined by a conjunction 1 or conjunctions should, ex- 
cept in the cases stated in Eules 305 and 307, be sepa- 
rated by the comma or the semicolon, as follows : 313. 
They should usually be separated by the comma if none 
of the coordinate members require commas within them- 
selves, 

(a) Right : Press it gently, firmly, steadily. 
(6) Right : If he is moved, if he has pity, if he is generous, 
he will aid us. 

314. They should be separated by the semicolon if 
the coordinate members, or some of them, are of consider- 
able length or require commas within themselves. 

Right : It was due to the great satirist, who alone knew 
how to use ridicule without abusing it ; who, without 
inflicting a w^ound, effected a great social reform ; who 
reconciled wit and virtue after a long and disastrous 
separation, during which wit had been led astray by 
profligacy and virtue by fanaticism. 

315. The semicolon should not be used if none of the Misuse 
coordinate members are long or have commas within of seml ~ 
themselves. 



(ii) Semi- 
colon 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 300 ff . 



146 



PUNCTUATION 



WRONG : He was a man of honor ; a good citizen ; a 

true Christian. 
Right : He was a man of honor, a good citizen, a true 

Christian. 



Mistaken 
non-junc- 
tion — two 
commas 



Coordinate Elements with Conjunctions 

316. When two coordinate 1 members of a predication 
that are joined by a conjunction 1 have a common syn- 
tactic x relation to the following member, and when the 
structure is such that without punctuation only the sec- 
ond of the coordinate members might seem to have that 
relation, the second member together with the conjunc- 
tion should be enclosed between commas. 

(a) Right : Two days before, and even so late as yester- 
morning, I was like a beggarman. 

(b) Right : By what I could spy in the windows, and by the 
persons I saw pass out and in, I saw that the neigh- 
borhood was very respectable. 

317. When two coordinate clauses, 1 whether independ- 
ent 1 or dependent, 1 are joined by a pure conjunction 
(and, but, for, or, nor, or neither), the conjunction should 
be preceded by a comma or a semicolon, as follows : 

(i) Comma 318. Coordinate clauses joined by a pure conjunction 2 
should usually be separated by a comma if the clauses have 
no points within themselves. 

Right : The report will spread to remote villages, and 
people in the backwoods will hear the details. 

Right : He approached the mate, and the captain 
scowled. 



Coordi- 
nate 
clauses : 



Comma 
before for 



319. The observance of the foregoing rule is especially 
important in the case of clauses connected by the coor- 
dinating conjunction for. Unless a comma is placed 
between such clauses, the for is liable to be mistaken 
momentarily for a preposition. 

i See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 2 See 237. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



147 



MISLEADING : It is a decided benefit for students who 
take exercise are not easily susceptible to sickness. 

Clear : It is a decided benefit, for students who take 
exercise are not easily susceptible to sickness. 



Let J? inm « 

clauses 



(ii) Semi- 
colon 



320. Rule 318 sometimes gives rise to a vague idea And not 
that and should always be preceded by a comma, 
it be observed that the rule concerns only coordinate 
clauses 1 joined by a conjunction. 

WRONG: He seized the rope, and hauled the boat 
alongside. ["And" joins not clauses, but verbs.] 

Right : He seized the rope and hauled the boat along- 
side. 

321. Coordinate clauses joined by a pure conjunction 2 
should be separated by a semicolon if the clauses are 
long, or if some of them contain points within them- 
selves, or if a more decided pause than a comma would 
furnish is desired. 

(a) Eight : The writer who uses at all such expressions as 
those in the foregoing list violates good taste ; and the 
writer who drags them into a matter-of-fact context 
commits a double offense. 

(6) Right : He had horses, boats, motor cars, and countless 
friends ; and life seemed very gay to him. 

(c) Right : It is undoubtedly a profitable business ; but 
what of that ? 



322. Aside from clauses, and aside from the cases in other 

dealt with in Rule 316, tw^o coordinate 1 members of a casesno 

' m separation 

predication that are joined by a pure conjunction 2 should usually 

not usually be separated by punctuation. 323. But to 

prevent mistaken junction, or to give distinctness to 

each member, the comma or the semicolon may be used 

between them, as follows : 324. If the members are 

not long and have no commas within themselves, the 

comma may be used. 

Right : He was tall, and strong as a lion. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 i?. 2 See 237. 



Excep- 
tions : 



(i) Comma 



148 



PUNCTUATION 



Or with 
synonym 



(ii) Semi- 
colon 



In such a case the second member should usually also 
be followed by a comma if it does not close an independ- 
ent predication (see Rule 316). 

Right : The report of a railway wreck, or any other dis- 
astrous news, would agitate her extremely. 

325. An expression consisting of or and a synonym 
or explanatory term should be set off by a comma or 
commas, or should be enclosed between parentheses. 

Right: Good-bye (or good-by) should be hyphened. 
Right : A puck, or small block of wood, is used in 
hockey. 

326. If the members are long, or have commas within 
themselves, a semicolon should be used. 



Right : They brought me some cloth of native manufac- 
ture, curious stuff made of wood-fiber, so they said, 
and stained with the most outlandish design ; and also 
a great wooden bowl symmetrically shaped, and 
polished. 



Series 
with one 
conjunc- 
tion: 



327. In a series of three or more coordinate 1 elements 
connected by one conjunction 1 before the last member, 
every member except the last should be followed by a 
(i) Comma comma or a semicolon, as follows : 328. The comma 
should be used if the coordinate elements are not long 
and require no points within themselves. 

(a) Right : He has pen, ink, and paper. 
lb) Right : A red, white, and blue flag, 
(c) Right : He talked, he joked, and he laughed. 

329. A comma should not be used without good rea- 
son after the last member of a series of the kind just 
referred to. 

WRONG : A dog, a cat, and a monkey, were his only 

companions. 
Right : A dog, a cat, and a monkey were his only 

companions. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, p. 3G0 ff . 



Wrong 
comma 
after last 
member 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 149 

330. The semicolon should be used if the coordinate (ii) Semi- 
elements, or some of them, have points within themselves. colon 

Right : He said that he had lent his neighbor an ax ; 
that on the next day, needing the ax, he had gone to 
get it ; and that his neighbor had denied borrowing it. 

331. The semicolon should not be used if none of the Misuse of 
members are long or have points within themselves. semicolon 

WRONG : He was black-eyed ; dark-complexioned ; and 

altogether very handsome. 
Right : He was black-eyed, dark-complexioned, and 

altogether very handsome. 

332. The members of such a series should not be (Hi) Uni- 
separated some by commas and others by semicolons; oimi y 
the same mark should be used throughout. 



Separation of Subordinate Elements from their Principals 

Adjective Elements Preceding their Principals 

333. Adjectives, 1 adjective phrases, 1 participles, 1 and Adjective 
participial phrases 1 standing at the beginning of a predi- preceding 
cation and not used attributively 1 should be followed by 

a comma. 

(a) Right : Honest and incorruptible, he spurned the offer. 
(6) Right : Weary of the long delay, he began to pace the 
room. 

(c) Right : Seeing a red cap in the crowd, he thought he 

had at last found her. 

(d) Right : Born and reared in Russia, young Napravnik 

had an inveterate hatred of autocracy. 

Adjective Elements Following their Principals 

334. A restrictive modifier is a modifier the omission Restric- 

of which would change the meaning of the context. For tlve and 
to & non-re- 

example, in " Dead men tell no tales," " dead " is restric- strictive 



1 See the Grammatical Vocahulary, pp. 360 ff . 



explained 



150 



PUNCTUATION 



tive, for the omission of " dead " would leave " Men tell 
no tales," which has a different meaning from " Dead men 
tell no tales." " Dead men " designates a certain re- 
stricted class of the beings designated by " men " ; hence 
the term restrictive as applied to " dead." A non-restric- 
tive modifier is a modifier the omission of which would 
not change the meaning of the context. For example, 
in " Beneath yonder rugged elms the rude forefathers of 
the hamlet sleep," " rugged " and "rude" are non-restric- 
tive, for the omission of these words would leave " Beneath 
yonder elms the forefathers of the hamlet sleep," which 
makes the same statement as the original assertion. 
" Yonder rugged elms " designates the same objects as 
"yonder elms" — not a restricted class; and "the rude 
forefathers of the hamlet " designates the same men as 
"the forefathers of the hamlet." The following rule, it 
should be clearly noticed, does not concern restrictive and 
non-restrictive modifiers in general, but only adjective 1 
modifiers following their principals. 1 



Non-re- 
strictive 
— comma 

Restric- 
tive — no 
comma 



Relative 
clauses 



335. (a) A non-restrictive 2 adjective 1 element follow- 
ing its principal 1 should be preceded by a comma; and 
it should also be followed by a comma unless some other 
point is required by another rule, (b) A restrictive 2 
adjective element following its principal should not be 
separated from its principal by punctuation. 

The foregoing rule applies to various kinds of adjective 
elements, as follows : 

336. Relative Clauses. — A non-restrictive 2 relative 
clause l should be set off by the comma ; a restrictive 
relative clause should not be set off by the comma. 

The application of Euld 335 to relative clauses 1 is par- 
ticularly important, for the violation of the rule is a more 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 2 See 334. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



151 



conspicuous error in the case of relative clauses than Restra- 
in other cases. Wrong separation of restrictive, and tive and 
r ' non-re- 
failure to separate non-restrictive relative clauses, are strictive 

common blunders in the writing of many people. clauses 6 

(a) Restrictive relative clause — commas correctly omitted : 
The soldiers ivho served under Napoleon are all dead. 
["The soldiers" is a term of wide application; the 
relative clause restricts its application. "The sol- 
diers" applies to millions of men in all periods of 
history ; but " the soldiers who served under Napo- 
leon " applies to one particular class of soldiers of a 
particular period. Using the test, we see that the 
main assertion without the relative clause ("the sol- 
diers are all dead ") has not the same meaning as 
with the relative clause.] 

(6) Non-restrictive relative clause — commas necessary : 
Napoleon's soldiers, all of whom are now dead, were 
faithfully devoted to their general. ["Napoleon's 
soldiers" is just as definite in application as "Napo- 
leon's soldiers, all of whom are now dead" ; there- 
fore the relative clause does not restrict. The main 
assertion without the relative clause (" Napoleon's 
soldiers were faithfully devoted to their general") 
has the same meaning as with the relative clause.] 

(c) Restrictive relative clause — comma correctly omitted: 

Napoleon was born in Frying-pan Alley, Baltimore. 
I refer to the Napoleon who takes care of our furnace. 
[" The Napoleon " is an indefinite term ; " the Napo- 
leon who takes care of our furnace " is definite ; thus 
the relative clause restricts the application of the 
antecedent. The main assertion without the relative 
clause (" I refer to the Napoleon") is meaningless.] 

(d) Non-restrictive relative clause — commas necessary: 

Napoleon, who was always very self-confident, felt sure 
he would win the battle of Austerlitz. [" Napoleon " 
here can evidently refer to only one person ; therefore 
the relative clause does not restrict the antecedent. . 
"Napoleon, who was always very self-confident " is, 
in this context, no more restricted than simply "Napo- 
leon." Applying the test, we see that the main 
assertion without the relative clause ("Napoleon felt 
sure he would win the battle of Austerlitz") has the 
same meaning as with the relative clause.] 

(e) Restrictive relative clause — comma correctly omitted: 

Architecture is the art which so disposes and adorns 



152 



PUNCTUATION 



Restric- 
tive and 
non-re- 
strictive 
relative 
clauses 



edifices that the sight of them contributes to mental 
health, power, and pleasure. [Test: "Architecture 
is the art" is meaningless.] 

(/) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary: 
He followed the profession of architecture, in which 
he was ambitious to excel, [Test: "He followed 
the profession of architecture " has the same meaning 
without the relative clause as with it.] 

(<7) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary : We 
followed the stream to its source, where we found a 
hunter's cabin. [Test : " We followed the stream to 
its source " has the same meaning without the relative 
clause as with it.] 

(Ji) Restrictive relative clause — comma correctly omitted: 
Zinc mines were the source whence the Vandenbarks 
had derived their great wealth. [Test : "Zinc mines 
were the source" is meaningless.] 

(i) Restrictive relative clause — no commas : He who per- 
severes will succeed. [Test: The main assertion 
without the relative clause (" He will succeed") has 
not the same meaning as with the clause.] 

(j) Non-restrictive relative clause — commas necessary: 
Jonas Engstrom, who is very persevering, will surely 
rise in his profession. [Test : "Jonas Engstrom will 
surely rise in his profession" has the same meaning 
without the relative clause as with it.] 

(Jc) Restrictive relative clause — no commas : The man who 
will dive into the whirlpool and return shall be 
rewarded. 

(I) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary: 
The cup was given to Vivian Skimmerhorn, who had 
shown his bravery by diving into the whirlpool. 

(m) Restrictive relative clause — no comma : Lady Macbeth 
was a woman who feared nothing. 

(n) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary : The 
heroine is Lady Macbeth, who is represented as a 
fearless, unscrupulous woman. 

(o) Restrictive relative clause — no commas: Those mem- 
bers who favor the motion will say "Aye." 

(p) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary : Mr. 
Chairman, I wish to declare my opposition to the 
present motion, which seems to me very ill advised. 

(q) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary: In 
the crowd the mayor perceived his wife, who waved 
her handkerchief to him. 

(r) Restrictive relative clauses — no commas: The Sultan 
executed his wife who had plotted against him ; he 



INTEKIOR PUNCTUATION 



153 



let no harm come to the wives who had been true to 
him. 

(s) Restrictive relative clause — no comma : Tell me the 
name of the village in which you were born. 

(t) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary : We 
went to visit the town of Galena, in which General 
Grant lived. 

(u) Non-restrictive relative clause — comma necessary: 
Postpone this business until vacation time, when 
there will be more opportunity for attending to it. 

(v) Restrictive relative clause — no comma : He spoke never 
a word during all the time when I was with him. 

(w) Right : The city of Chicago, in which I teas bom, has 
always been my home. [Non-restrictive relative 
clause.] 

(x) Right : The city in which I was born has trebled its 
population since the days ivhen I played in its streets. 
[Restrictive relative clauses.] 

(y) Right : The place where he stays is far from here. [Re- 
strictive relative clause.] 

(z) Right : Do you know the reason why it sank? [Re- 
strictive relative clause. ] 

(aa) Right : Washington Irving, whose personality was gen- 
ial and charming, became very popular in England. 
[Non-restrictive relative clause.] 

(bb) Right : Every man who holds such an opinion is by- 
tendency a criminal. [Restrictive relative clause.] 

(cc) Right : He committed a serious error, in correcting 
which he had much trouble. [Non-restrictive relative 
clause.] 

(dd) Right : The woman for the benefit of whose family 
this iuas done is dead. [Restrictive relative clause.] 

(ee) Right : Here they found a number of brass cannon, 
which they destroyed. [Non-restrictive relative clause. ] 

(ff) Right : The days that I spent there were happy ones. 
[Restrictive relative clause.] 

(gg) Right : There is no scientific theory which is not open 
to revision. [Restrictive relative clause.] 



Restric- 
tive and 
non-re- 
strictive 
relative 
clauses 



337. Participles 1 and Participial Phrases 1 following Parti- 
their principals should, if non-restrictive, 2 be set off by cl P les 
the comma • if restrictive, 2 they should not be set off by 
the comma. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 2 See 334. 



154 PUNCTUATION 

(a) Kestrictive participial phrase — no commas: The time 

appointed for his arrival drew near. 

(b) Non-restrictive participial phrase — commas necessary : 

The bridegroom, overwhelmed with embarrassment, 
stuttered and stammered. 

(c) Kestrictive participial phrase — no comma : He took 

down a book bound in red leather. 

(d) Non-restrictive participial phrase — commas necessary: 

My father's favorite copy of Seneca, bound in tree 
calf and lettered in gilt, was my only companion on 
my journey. 

(e) Restrictive participial phrase — no commas : The reso- 

lutions adopted at the meeting last night were far 
from pacific. 

(/) Non-restrictive participial phrase — commas necessary: 
Lincoln's great Emancipation Proclamation, issued in 
time of war, was technically a war measure. 

(g) Restrictive participial phrase — no commas : The gentle- 
man sitting in the third seat of the last row will have 
the goodness to wake up. 

(h) Non-restrictive participial phrases — commas necessary : 
The incensed captain, riding up and down and snap- 
ping his pistol, endeavored to stop the retreat. 

(i) Right : The duke's house, lighted with a thousand lamps, 
presented a memorable spectacle. [Non-restrictive 
phrase.] 

(j) Right : A house lighted with a thousand lamps would 
look queer in this town. [Restrictive phrase.] 

Adjectives 338. Adjectives 1 and Adjective Phrases 1 following 
their principals should, if non-restrictive, 2 be set off by 
the comma ; if restrictive, 2 they should not be set off by 
the comma. 

(a) Right : Imogen, pure and lovely, is a paragon of woman- 
hood. [Non-restrictive adjectives.] 

(5) Right : Things pure and lovely are the Christian's de- 
light. [Restrictive adjectives.] 

(c) Right: Monmouth, always irresolute in time of peril, 

now wavered and hesitated. [Non-restrictive modi- 
fier. ] 

(d) Right: A general always irresolute in time of peril is 

unfit for military command. [Restrictive modifier.] 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 if. 2 See 334. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



155 



Non-re- 
strictive— 
comma 

Restric- 
tive — no 
comma 



339. The word such is an adjective. An expression Such as 
introduced by such as (e.g., u A blackguard such as that 
man is ought to be whipped ") is an adjective modifier — 
viz., an adjective (such) limited by a clause. (The as 
clause limiting such is very often elliptical ; l e.g., " A 
blackguard such as that man ought to be whipped.") 
Hence : 340. An expression introduced by such as, fol- 
lowing its principal, 1 should be preceded by a comma if 
it is non-restrictive ; 2 it should not be preceded by a 
comma if it is restrictive. 2 

Eight : He has .an aversion to rough and violent sports, 
such as football and boxing. [Non-restrictive modi- 
fier. See Rule 338.] 

Right : He has an aversion to amusements such as 
hunting and fishing, [Restrictive modifier. See 
Rule 338.] 

341. The such as in such a case should be followed 
by no mark of punctuation unless a parenthetical expres- 
sion is inserted between the such as and the words that 
it introduces. 

Right : I read many historical novels, such as Romola, 

Rienzi, and Quo Vadis. [462.] 
Right : I read many historical novels, such as, for 

example, Romola and Rienzi. [406.] 



No point 
after such 
as 



342. It is a common error to omit the necessary Omission 

comma after an interpolated non-restrictive 2 modifier. of second 
J L comma 

WRONG : On November 2, which was the day fixed for 

the game we assembled at the grounds. 
Right : On November 2, which was the day fixed for the 

game, we assembled at the grounds. 



Adverbs 

343. Pure adverbs must be distinguished from con- Conjunc- 
junctive adverbs. A pure adverb is one that modifies verbs dis- 
distinctly a predicate, an adjective, or an adverb ; a con- tinguished 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 2 See 334. 



156 



PUNCTUATION 



Adverbs — 
no comma 
usually 



Adverbial 
and par- 
enthetic 
phrases 
distin- 
guished 



junctive adverb is one that modifies a whole predication 
rather than any one part. For example, in " I wish very 
much that you would come," "much" is a pure adverb, 
modifying " wish " ; in "I wish, nevertheless, that you 
would come," " nevertheless " is a conjunctive adverb, 
modifying the whole predication. The same word may 
be used sometimes as a pure adverb, and sometimes as a 
conjunctive adverb; e.g., in "I then departed," "then" 
is a pure adverb, whereas in "What, then, are we to 
infer?" "then" is a conjunctive adverb. Rule 344, let 
it be observed, concerns only pure adverbs. Concerning 
the punctuation proper with conjunctive adverbs, see 
Rules 394-401. 

344. A pure adverb, 1 or a group of pure adverbs, 
should not usually be separated from the context by 
punctuation, whatever its position. 

Right : He spoke to her gently and kindly. 
Right : He spoke gently and kindly to her. 
Right : Gently and kindly he spoke to her. 

But see Rule 253 with example b, and Rule 299 with 
examples g, h, i, j. 

Adverbial Phrases and Clauses — Introductory 

345. Adverbial phrases, discussed in the following' 
sections, must be distinguished from parenthetic phrases. 
A phrase is adverbial if it modifies distinctly a predicate, 
an adjective, or an adverb ; it is parenthetic if it affects 
the meaning of the whole predication rather than that 
of any one part. For example, in "He lives in a 
hotel in Chicago," "in a hotel" is an adverbial phrase, 
modifying " lives " ; in " He lives, in fact, in Chicago," 
" in fact " is a parenthetic phrase, modifying the whole 
predication. The same phrase may be in one predication 
adverbial, in another parenthetic ; e.g., in "I will mention 

i See 243. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 157 

in conclusion the Supreme Court," "in conclusion" is 
used adverbially to modify " mention," but in " In 
conclusion, what is to be gained by this measure?" " in 
conclusion " is parenthetic, modifying the whole predica- 
tion. Concerning the punctuation proper with parenthetic 
phrases, see Rules 403-407. 

346. An introductory adverbial 1 phrase 2 or clause 2 is Introduc- 

one which forms the first member of a simple predication, 3 l^L^f" 

separate or component ; 3 for example : modifier 

defined 

In the park was a fountain. 

In the park was a fountain, and near it stood a bench. 

The room was lighted brightly, and before the fire stood 
Sir Hugh. 

When I entered, he looked embarrassed ; but in a mo- 
ment he regained his composure. 

347. An introductory 4 adverbial phrase 2 not contain- introduc- 
ing a verb should usually. not be followed by any mark t ^ 

of punctuation. without 

verb — 

(a) Right : In a small, dingy inn about a mile from the usuallv n0 
• y r T j i j • comma 

toivn I secured a lodging. 

(&) Right : A great many years ago there lived a famous 

alchemist. 

(c) Right : There stood on the table a pitcher, in which was 

a bunch of goldenrod. 

(d) Right : He carried a long pole, on the top of ivhich a 

parrot was sitting. 

(e) Right : There we sat clown to wait, and in about an 

hour our belated friends came up. 

But see Rule 253 with examples a and c, and Rule 299 
with examples b and c. 

348. An introductory 4 adverbial clause, 2 or an intro- introduc- 
ductory adverbial phrase 2 containing a verb, should be p^se 

followed by a comma. with verb 

and clause 
1 See 345. a See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . "" comma 

* See 238, 241.' 4 See 346. 



158 



PUNCTUATION 



Complete 
clauses 



(a) Right : Despite his efforts to escape, he remained a pris- 
oner. 
(6) Right : When the ship is in, the lock is closed. 

(c) Right : Though they saio the many improvements accom- 

plished by his ingenuity and industry, they were yet 
unsatisfied. 

(d) Right : In order to live, we must eat. 

(e) In spite of his weeping, we saw he was a cheat. 

This rule applies to various kinds of introductory ad- 
verbial phrases and clauses, as follows : 

349. Complete Clauses. — A complete adverbial clause 1 
preceding its governing 1 clause should be followed by a 
comma. 

(a) Right : When I have seen the goods, I will decide. 

(&) Right : Let us go in ; and after we have rested awhile, 

we will resume our conference. [321.] 
(c) Right : If you tell me to do it, I .will do it ; but I will 

hold you responsible for the consequences. [321.] 



Elliptical 
clauses 



350. Elliptical 

ceding its governing 
comma. 



Clauses. - 

1 clause 



— An elliptical clause * pre- 
should be followed by a 



(a) Right : When a boy, I had few opportunities. 

(b) Right : While there, I met the President. 

(c) Right : He was a kindly old fellow ; but when drunk, 

as he was sometimes, he was the terror of the neigh- 
borhood. [321.] 



Gerund 351. Gerund Phrases. — A gerund 1 phrase introduc- 

phrases j n g a s j m pi e predication 2 (separate or component) 2 should 
be followed by a comma. 

(a) Right : Upon opening the door, she smelled escaping 

gas. 

(b) Right : There we landed ; and after lunching, we began 

our plans for the campaign. [321.] 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



159 



352. Infinitive Phrases. — An infinitive phrase l in- Infinitive 
troducing a simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 P hrases 
should be followed by a comma. 

(a) Right: To succeed in your undertaking, you must 

follow your lawyer's advice. 

(b) Right : Brown can do it after a fashion ; but to have it 

done right, you must get a landscape gardener. 
[321.] 



353. 

phrase 1 containing a subordinate clause, 1 introducing a c 



Phrases containing Clauses. — A prepositional Phrase 

contain- 
ing clause 



simple predication 2 (separate or component), 2 should be 
followed by a comma. 

(a) Right : After all the hardships he has suffered, he de- 
serves some repose. 

{b) Right : I searched for a long time in vain ; but in the 
room where he kept his instruments, I at last found 
my book. [321.] 

354. An introductory 3 adverbial phrase or clause, un- Misuse of 
less very long or involved, should not be followed by a semicolon 
semicolon. 

WRONG : If you get no thanks from a person you have 

favored ; you lose your respect for him. 
Right : If you get no thanks from a person you have 

favored, you lose your respect for him. 



No sepa- 
ration 
from and 
or but 



355. An introductory 3 adverbial phrase or clause fol- 
lowing and or but should not be preceded by a comma. 

Right : I arrived at six o'clock ; and after vje had dined, _ 
we made our plans. [321.] 

Right : I tried to convince him ; but though I was as elo- 
quent as Balaam, he remained as obstinate as an ass. 

356. But such a modifier following any conjunction 1 Sepa- 
other than and and but should be preceded by a comma f r0 m other 

if it is followed by one. conjunc- 

tions 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238, 241. 8 See 346. 



160 



PUNCTUATION 



(a) Right : I shall be very glad if, when you have considered 

the matter, you will report to me. 
(6) Right : I doubt whether, after it is all done, you will 

like it, 

(c) Right : Go up now ; or, if you prefer, amuse yourself 

here in the library. [321.] 

(d) Right : It is a hard question ; for, when you come to 

think of it, who knows what social dynamics means ? 



Conclud- 
ing ad- 
verbial 
modifier 
defined 



Restric- 
tive — no 
comma 



Non-re- 
strictive — 
comma 
usually 



Adverbial Phrases and Clauses — Concluding 

357. A concluding adverbial x phrase 2 or clause 2 is one 
which forms the last member of a simple predication, 3 
separate or component ; 3 for example : 

I shall be glad when summer comes. 

I shall be glad when summer comes, and so will my 

grocer. 
The bells will ring in the steeples, and we shall all be 

glad when Johnnie comes marching home. 

358. A concluding 4 adverbial phrase or clause should 
not be preceded by any point if it is restrictive. 5 

(a) Right : This measure I will oppose by every means, fair 

or foul. 

(b) Right : He answered the charge in a way that was more 

creditable to his ingenuity than to his candor. 

(c) Right : It will be weak, ineffectual, and contemptible 

if it is not well organized. 

(d) Right : The lock is closed when the ship is in. 

(e) Right : We shall eat supper on the veranda, and perhaps 

we shall hear the band by the time we come to dessert. 
(/) Right : I will get the bill passed by the legislature if I 
can; but don't make any rash contracts until you 
are sure it is passed. [321.] 

359. But if a concluding 4 phrase or clause is non- 
restrictive, 5 it should be preceded by a comma or a semi- 
colon — a comma in most cases, a semicolon if the phrase 
orclause is long or has points within itself. 

1 See 345. 2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 if. 
3 See 238, 241. * gee 357. 5 See 334. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



161 



Right : I do not believe he will do it, though I admit he 
has the right to do it if he chooses. 

Right : In an expository essay each of the passages con- 
stituting the major units should be somewhat like a 
distinct composition ; just as a military company, 
besides being a unit in a regiment, is a complete or- 
ganization within itself. 

360. A concluding 1 adverbial phrase or clause should Misuse of 
not be preceded by a semicolon if it is not long and does semicolon 
not contain points within itself. 

WRONG : I shall devote all my time to helping the poor 
in the slums ; even though charity is out of fashion. 

Right: I shall" devote all my time to helping the poor in 
the slums, even though charity is out of fashion. 



Espe- 
cially : 

Restric- 
tive — no 
comma 



361. A concluding 1 adverbial phrase or clause intro- 
duced by especially and not preceded by a conjunction 2 
should not be preceded by a comma if it is restrictive. 3 

Right : He cares a little for paintings, but is interested 

especially in music. 
Right : He is interested especially in music, but she 

cares most for painting. 

362. But such a phrase or clause should be preceded Non-re- 
by a comma if it is non-restrictive. 3 comma 6 "~ 

Right : I am very glad to subscribe, especially since 

Pryor is to contribute. 
Right : The entertainments are very pleasant, especially 

in the summer, and are not at all expensive. 

363. In either case especially should not be separated No com- 
from the phrase or clause by a comma. See the foregoing Especially 
examples. 

364. One should be particularly careful not to omit Final non- 

t» ex c "j - v I r> t" 1 T7 f* 

the comma before a concluding because clause that is non- because 

clause 
1 See 357. 2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 
3 See 334. 



162 



PUNCTUATION 



Because 

clause 

modifying 

remote 

verb 



restrictive; 1 omission of the comma at such a place is 
very liable to cause momentary (often ludicrous) miscon- 
struction. 

LIABLE TO MISCONSTRUCTION: It cannot be con- 
sidered injurious because it sharpens the wits. 

Right: It cannot be considered injurious, because it 
sharpens the wits. 

365. A because clause modifying a verb separated 
from it by an intervening verb should be preceded by a 
comma. 

LIABLE TO MISCONSTRUCTION : I don't want you to 

build a fire because the room is warm. 
Right : I don't want you to build a fire, because the 
room is warm. 



Distinc- 
tion be- 
tween 
introduc- 
tory and 
conclud- 
ing modi- 
fiers 



366. Attention should be called particularly to the 
difference, as regards punctuation, between an adverbial 
clause preceding its governing clause (see Rules 349, 
350) and one following its governing clause (see Rule 
358). Thus, compare "When darkness comes, the lamps 
are lit " and " The lamps are lit when darkness comes"; 
"If he stays, I go " and " I go if he stays." 



Interpo- 
lated 
modifiers 
defined 



Adverbial Phrases and Clauses — Interpolated 

367. An interpolated adverbial 2 phrase 3 or clause 3 is 
one which forms neither the first member nor the last 
member of a simple predication, 4 separate or component. 4 
For example, an interpolated adverbial phrase or clause 
may stand - — 

(a) Between a subject and its bare 3 predicate ; 3 e.g. } 
"The soldiers with a loud shout rushed on." 

i See 334. 2 g e e 345. 

3 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 If. 

4 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 163 

(b) Between a verb and its object; 1 e.g., "He re- 
peated with much emphasis his previous declaration." 

(c) Between a verb and its predicate substantive 1 or 
adjective; e.g., " He was in every sense a man." 

(d) Between an auxiliary 1 and a principal 1 verb; e.g., 
"I will, at any time you may set, confer with you on 
this matter." 

368. An interpolated 2 adverbial phrase 1 not containing Interpo- 

a verb should usually be preceded and followed by a J^^se 

comma if it consists of more than six words. without 

verb : 

Right : The inspector, after three iveeks of investigation Long 

in the neighborhood, had found no evidence. commas 

369. If such a phrase consists of fewer than six words, Short— no 
it should not usually be set off by any points. commas 

Right : The inspector in a short time gave his decision. 

But see, for exceptions, Kule 300, and Rule 301 with 
example g. 

370. An interpolated 2 adverbial phrase 1 containing a Interpo- 

verb, or an interpolated adverbial clause, 1 should be pre- p ^r ase 

ceded and followed by a comma. with verb, 

or clause 

(a) Right: Clayson, by the means I mentioned, got rid of —commas 

the fellow. 

(b) Right : I would give, if it ivere necessary, iny whole 

fortune. 

(c) Right : He is, unless I am mistaken, a Frenchman. 

(d) Right : They have, by a method never before practiced, 

succeeded in evading the law. 

See also the examples under Rule 301. 

Grammatical Appositives 

371. An appositive 1 preceding its principal 1 should be Apposi- 
separated from the principal by a comma. ceding — 

i See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 2 See 367. comma 



164 



PUNCTUATION 



Right : A veteran lawyer, he at once perceived the flaw 
in the deed. 

Appositive 372. An appositive 1 following its principal 1 should in 
— usually most cases ^ e P^ceded by a comma ; and if it does not 
comma or close a simple predication 2 (separate or component), 2 it 
should also be followed by a comma. 

(a) Right : This is Mrs. Harris, my colleague. 
(6) Right : Mrs. fctarris, my colleague, is not here at pres- 
ent ; but my clerk, Miss Mills, will help us. 



Omission 373. Do not omit the necessary comma after an inter- 

of second 

comma 



polated appositive. 



WRONG : Madison, the capital of Wisconsin is a pretty 

city. 
Right : Madison, the capital of Wisconsin, is a pretty 

city. 



Apposi- 
tive an- 
nounced: 

Conclud- 
ing— 
either 
dash or 
colon 



Interpo- 
lated — 
dash be- 
fore and 
after 



374. An appositive 1 that is announced, or prepared 
for, by the preceding words should be preceded by a dash 
or a colon, as follows : 375. If the appositive closes a 
simple predication 2 (separate or component), 2 either the 
dash or the colon may be used — the colon preferably in 
a formal context. 

(a) Right : I wish to ask about one particular law — the 

pension law. 

(b) Right : I wish to ask regarding one particular law — the 

pension law ; and I want a definite answer. 

(c) Right : There are three causes : poverty, injustice, and 

indolence. 

(d) Right : Two things are to be considered : the enactment 

of the law and the execution of the law ; but the 
gentleman has spoken only of the former. 

376. If the appositive does not close a simple predica- 
tion 2 (separate or component), 2 a dash should be used ; 
and a dash should also follow the appositive. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 165 

Right : I want to ask about one particular law — the 
pension law — if you have time. 

As to the use or non-use of commas with clashes, see 
Rule 391. 

377. When a number of words intervene between a Interven- 
principal substantive and an unannounced appositive, 1 a l^^Xor 
dash should usually precede the appositive. dashes 

(a) Right : There was a fellow there who always made him- 
self ridiculous — a clerk named Beckham. 

378. In such a case a dash should also follow the ap- Dash fol- 
positive if the appositive does not close a simple predica- lowin S 
tion 2 (separate or component). 2 

(a) Right : I have lost the book I need most — - a copy of 

- Smith's Chemistry — and also my drawing kit. 
(6) Right : The one book I need most — a copy of Henry 
Esmond — I seem to have lost. 

As to the use or non-use of commas with the dashes, see 
Rule 391. 



379. An appositive 1 in apposition to a noun implied, Principal 

not expressed, should be preceded by a dash, and should d^sVor 

also be followed by a dash if it does not close a simple dashes 
predication 2 (separate or component). 2 

(a) Right : He had left his fiddle at home — a fact at which 

I rejoiced. 

(b) Right : He had left his fiddle at home — a fact at which 

I rejoiced ; and for once he was pretty good company. 

(c) Right: If he had forgotten his fiddle — a favor he had 

never done us — and brought the letter, I might have 
endured him ; but he brought the fiddle and forgot 
the letter. [321.] 

As to the use or non-use of commas with the dashes, 
see Rule 391. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, p. 360 ff . 

2 See 238, 241. 



166 



PUNCTUATION 



Adjacent 380. Any appositive 1 standing in the midst of a sim- 

dasheTor" P^ e Plication 2 (separate or component) 2 may be enclosed 
parenthe- between dashes or parentheses if a comma precedes the 
principal, 1 or if a comma is used within the appositive. 

Right : I could not get out, the janitor (a careless, ab- 
sent-minded fellow) having locked the door and gone 
home. 

Right : The daughter of the colonel — a beautiful, clever 
girl — acted as hostess; and nothing was lacking to 
make our hero happy. 

As to the use or non-use of commas with the dashes, see 
Rule 391. 



Restric- 
tive 

appositive 
— no 
comma 



Restric- 
tive that, 
how, 
whether, 
who, and 
what clau- 
ses — no 
comma 



381. An appositive 1 used to distinguish its principal 1 
from other persons or things called by the same name 
should usually not be separated from its principal by 
punctuation. 

(a) Right : Collins the poet is not to be confused with Col- 

lins the novelist. 

(b) Right : The poet Patmore is little known in America. 

(c) Right: The sentence " Come, ye blessed of my Father" 

occurs in the New Testament. 

(d) Right : Charles the Bold. Basil the blacksmith. That 

man Jones. The steamship Syria. Milton's poem 
Comus. The adjective strong. The expression u Aj, 
ay, sir." 

382. (a) Rule 381 applies particularly to that clauses 
in restrictive 3 apposition 1 to nouns such as the fact and 
the statement; and to indirect questions 1 introduced by 
how, whether, who, and what, in restrictive apposition 
to nouns such as the question. Such clauses and indi- 
rect questions should not be preceded by a comma. 

Right : The fact that it is legal is no excuse. 
Right : The question whether it is legal is hard to 
answer. 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238, 241. s'See 33 ^. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



167 



(b) Rule 381 also applies to substantive clauses 
restrictive apposition to the provisional 1 subject it. 

Right : It seemed certain that the book was lost. 



in 



Rhetorical Appositives 

383. A member of a predication, other than a substan- 
tive member, having the rhetorical effect of being in ap- 
position 1 with a preceding member, should be preceded by 
a dash or a colon, as follows:' 384. If the appositive 
expression closes a simple predication 2 (separate or com- 
ponent), 2 either the dash or the colon may be used — the 
colon preferably in a formal context. 

(a) Right : I chose it for two reasons: because it ivas cheap, 

and because it suited my purpose. [The italicized 
member is rhetorically in apposition with the adverbial 
phrase "for two reasons. "] 

(b) Right : He told me of his past life — of his wild youth, of 

his career as a pirate, and of his flight to America. 
[The italicized phrases are rhetorically in apposition 
with the adverbial phrase " of his past life." 

(c) Right : It should be well cared for — should not be neg- 

lected or misused. [The italicized member is rhetor- 
ically in apposition with " should be well cared for."] 

(d) Right : He spoke in the most approved fashion — with 

trilled r's and graceful gestures ; but he didn't win the 
debate. 



Rhetorical 
appositive 
— dash or 
colon 

Con- 
cluding — 
either 
dash 
or colon 



385. If the appositive expression does not close a 
simple predication 2 (separate or component), 2 a dash should 
be used both before and after. 

Right : In an incredibly short time — in two hours, to be 
specific — a telegram came in reply. [ u In two hours ' ' 
is rhetorically in apposition with the adverbial phrase 
"in an incredibly short time."] 

As to the use or non-use of commas with the dashes, see 
Rule 391. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238, 241. 



Interpo- 
lated — 
dash be- 
fore and 
after 



168 



PUNCTUATION 



Apposi- 
tives in- 
troduced 

°y 

namely, 
for exam- 
ple, etc. : 

Con- 
cluding — 
either 
colon 
or dash 



Rules concerning Grammatical and Rhetorical Appositives 
in Common 

386. When an appositive, 1 either grammatical or rhe- 
torical, 2 is introduced by a parenthetic expression, such as 
namely, that is, that is to say, i.e., viz., to wit, for ex- 
ample, for instance, e.g., the parenthetic expression 
should be preceded by a dash or a colon, as follows : 
387. If the appositive concludes a simple predication 3 
(separate or component), 3 either the dash or the colon 
may be used — the colon preferably in a formal context. 

(a) Eight : Two of these transactions strike me as fraudu- 
lent : namely, the alleged sale of the wreck, and the 
expenditure of the proceeds for advertising. [374, ] 

(6) Right: Two dances are in use there — namely, the 
waltz and the highland fling. [374.] 

(c) Right : Three parties are engaged : namely, the Whigs, 

the Tories, and the Radicals. [374.] 

(d) Right : He will be expelled if he commits the slightest 

irregularity — for instance, if he fails to pay his dues 
on time. [383.] 

(e) Right : You will communicate with her in only two 

cases : viz., (1) if the ward dies, and (2) if the money 
invested is by some unforeseen disaster lost. [383.] 
(/) Right : He lost the money through an imprudent invest- 
ment—namely, by a bet on Scintilla. [383.] 



Interpo- 
lated — 
dash he- 
fore and 
after 



388. If the appositive does not conclude a simple 
predication 3 (separate or component), 3 the parenthetic 
expression should be preceded by a dash, and a dash 
should also follow the appositive. 

(a) Right : They grace many important occasions — for 
example, presidential inaugurations — by their dis- 
tinguished presence and equipage. [376.] 

(fi) Right : He gave a large sum — namely, a thousand dol- 
lars — out of pure vainglory. [376.] 

(c) Right: He fulfilled his contract in time — that is, in 
sixty days — and received the fee. [385.] 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 383. 3 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



169 



(d) Right : He was called on in urgent cases — for example, 
when a boat had capsized — to come and direct the 
crew. [385.] 

As to the use or non-use of commas with the dashes, see 
Rule 391. 

389. Note that a comma should follow the parenthetic Comma 
expression {namely, etc.) in every case. 

that is, a thousand clol 



always 
after the 
paren- 
thetic ex- 
pression 



Right : He gave a large sum 
lars. [374.] 

Right : He gave a large sum — that is, a thousand dol- 
lars. [375.] 

Right : I need them only occasionally : that is, when 
an examination is approaching. [383.] 

Right : I need them only occasionally — that is, when 
an examination is approaching. [384.] 

390. The expression that is, although it is a subject Paren- 
and predicate, is often used in the manner of the adverb ±thatis 
namely, to introduce an appositive (grammatical or rhe- 
torical). Observe the difference between the predicative 
and the parenthetic use of that is : — 

Predicative : I see a big animal over there. That is 
your Guernsey bull, I suppose. [Here "that" is 
distinctly the subject of the predication, and " your 
Guernsey bull " is the predicate complement of u is."] 

Parenthetic : He and I agreed very well in one respect 
— that is, in our enthusiasm for high-bred cattle. 
[Here " that" is not distinctly a grammatical subject; 
and " in our enthusiasm for high-bred cattle " is not 
the predicate complement of u is," but a rhetorical 



appositive to u in one respect.' 
thetic, equivalent to namely. ] 



'That is" is paren- 



That is, when used parenthetically before an appositive, 
should not be capitalized and preceded by a period as if 
it were the beginning of a new predication. The same 
rule holds of that is to say and i.e. (see Eule 143a). 

Right : My father gave me a splendid birthday present 
when I was eighteen — that is, a six-cylinder car. 
[" A six-cylinder car" is not the predicate comple- 



170 



PUNCTUATION 



Commas 
with 
dashes : 

When 
right 



When 
wrong 



ment of "is," but an appositive to "present," the 
object of "gave " ; "that is " is parenthetic, equiva- 
lent to namely.'] 

391. (a) When any appositive, 1 grammatical or rhe- 
torical, 2 is enclosed between dashes according to one of the 
foregoing rules, and when, if the appositive were omitted, 
a comma would be required after the preceding word, a 
comma should precede each dash. 

(1) Eight °. If he had left his fiddle at home, — an unheard- 

of occurrence, — I could perhaps have endured him. 
[379, 349.] 

(2) Eight : If you can do it in a very short time, — in two 

hours, to be specific, — you may have the job. [385, 
349.] 

(3) Eight : By means of a machine that he had invented, — 

namely, a sort of grindstone, — he managed to attract 
attention. [388, 353.] 

(4) Eight: If an accident occurred, — for instance, if a 

boat capsized, — he was sent for. [388, 349.] 

(b) But no commas should be used in addition to the 
dashes unless a comma would be required were the appos- 
itive omitted. 

Eight: The man I told you of a while ago — Harry 
Skeel, you know — is now a professional ball player. 
[377.] [In " The man I told you of awhile ago is 
now a professional ball player," no comma is required 
after " ago."] 



Paren- 
thetic de- 
fined ; 
adverbial 
dis- 
tinguished 



Separation of Parenthetic Elements from the Context 

392. A parenthetic expression is an expression inter- 
polated in a predication or attached to it and not consti- 
tuting a part of the subject or of the predicate. In "He 
was for a long time sick w T ith a fever," the italicized 
expression is not a parenthesis, because it is a modifier of 
" was." In " He was, I regret to say, sick with a fever," 
the italicized expression is a parenthesis, because it has 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff" . 2 See 383. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



171 



no syntactic 1 connection either with "he" or with "was 
sick with a fever." 

Conjunctive Adverbs 

393. Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs used to intro- Definition 
duce a whole predication rather than to modify adverb- 
ially any one member. The chief conjunctive adverbs are 
accordingly, also, besides, further, furthermore, hence, 
however, indeed, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, so, 
still, then, therefore, thus, yet. These are used also as 
pure adverbs. 2 Their use as pure adverbs, and their use Dis- 
as conjunctive adverbs must be clearly distinguished, for ^ n || llslied 
when used as pure adverbs, they are not governed by the adverbs 
following rules, but by Rule 344. 



Introduc- 
tory con- 
junctive 
adverbs 

Subject 
immedi- 
ately fol- 
lowing — 
no comma 
after so, 
therefore, 
etc. 



394. The conjunctive adverbs so, therefore, hence, yet, 
nevertheless, moreover, accordingly, thus, then, other- 
wise, when they stand at the beginning of a simple predi- 
cation 3 (separate or component) 3 aud are followed imme- 
diately by the subject, should not usually be followed by 
a comma. 

(a) Right : Therefore the United States may well be 

cautious. 
(&) Right : Nevertheless we had better hang together ; 

otherwise we may hang separately. 

(c) Right : It is a time of danger, and therefore the 

United States may well be cautious. 

(d) Right : That is true ; but nevertheless we had 

better hang together, for otherwise we may hang 
separately. 

395. But the conjunctive adverbs however and besides Comma 

standing at the beginning of a predication should always a j^ ra y s 

be followed by a comma. hoicever 

and 
beside s 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 if. 

2 See 343. 3 gee 238, 241. 



172 



PUNCTUATION 



Subject 
not im- 
mediately 
following 



No sepa- 
ration 
from 

preceding 
and or but 



Separation 
from any- 
other con- 
junction 



Conclud- 
ing- 
comma 
before 



(a) NOT IMMEDIATELY CLEAR : Besides his reasoning 
is bad. 
Right : Besides, his reasoning is bad. 
(6) NOT IMMEDIATELY CLEAR : However he reasoned 
her into his view. 
Eight : However, he reasoned her into his view. 
(c) Right : It was too dark for anybody to see us ; and 
besides, two of our men were keeping watch. 

396. A conjunctive adverb 1 standing at the beginning 
of a simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 and not 
followed immediately by the subject should be followed 
by a comma if the subject is preceded by one. 

(a) Right : Therefore, when all was ready, I cranked the 

car. 
(&) Right : I was perfectly sure now ; and therefore, 

when all was ready, I cranked the car. 

397. A conjunctive adverb * standing at the beginning 
of a predication should not usually be separated by a 
comma from a preceding and or but. 

(a) Right : And besides, I have a more decisive 

reason. 
(&) Right : But nevertheless, if need arises, I will be 

ready. 

398. But such a conjunctive adverb should be separated 
by a comma from any other conjunction 3 that precedes. 

(a) Right : If, moreover, it is as you say . . . 

(b) Right : When, therefore, the debt is paid . . . 

(c) Right : . . . and because, also, the tariff is pro- 

hibitive. 

399. A conjunctive adverb " standing at the end of a 

simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 should be 
preceded by a comma. . 

(a) Right : He is in want of money, however. 
(&) Right : He is happy, though. 

(c) Right : We shipped the goods, nevertheless, and he 
received them. 

i See 393. 2 See 238, 241. 

3 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 173 

(c7) Right: Where did he go, then? [That is, "Where 
did he go, that being the case ? " " Where did he go 
then?" would mean " Where did he go at that 
time ? " The punctuation shows whether " then " is 
to be construed as a modifier of the whole predication 
or as a modifier of ''go." See Rule 344.] 

400. A conjunctive adverb l standing in the midst of a interpo- 

simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 should be !^ d ~ 

enclosed between commas. commas 

(a) Right : He is, moreover, a man of wealth. 

('&) Right : He is, however, in want of ready money. 

(c) Right : He is, besides, in poor health. 

401. Do not omit the necessary comma after an inter- Omission 
polated conjunctive adverb. of second 



comma 



WRONG : I will not, however withdraw my name. 
Right : I will not, however, withdraw my name. 

Parenthetic Phrases in General 

402. The reader is again cautioned to distinguish clearly Paren- 
between parenthetic phrases and adverbial phrases, for phases 
the following rules do not apply to adverbial phrases, dis .tin- 
See Rules 345 and 392 for the distinction between the f™ m e 
two kinds of phrases. adverbial 

Among expressions governed by the following rules, 
are to be noticed particularly parenthetic phrases indi- 
cating the character or the connection of a predication 
— for example, in the second place, in conclusion, of 
course, to be specific, to tell the truth, to illustrate, for 
instance, for example, as a natural result, as to the 
legality of the measure, as for the last argument, that 
is, in other zvorcls, at any rate, on the other hand, on 
the contrary, in fact. 

403. A parenthetic phrase 3 standing at the beginning introduc- 

of a simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 should tor y P? r " 

be followed by a comma. phrase : 

i See 393. 2 gee 238, 241. « See 345, 392. Comma 

after 



174 



PUNCTUATION 



Separation 
from 

preceding 
conjunc- 
tion, ex- 
cept and 
or but 



Conclud- 
ing- 
comma 
before 



Eight : For example, last year an election was held. 

404. Such a phrase should also be separated by a 
comma from any preceding conjunction 1 except, usually, 
and or but (but see Rule 409). 

(a) Right : If, for example, an election is held . . . 

(&) Right : . . . for, to tell the truth, I take no interest in it. 

(c) Right : . . . but to tell the truth, I take no interest in it. 

(d) Right : And in the second place, we must consider . . . 

(e) Right : Nor, in the third place, are we to forget . . . 

405. A parenthetic phrase 2 standing at the end of a 
simple predication 3 (separate or component) 3 should be 
preceded by a comma. 

(a) Right : I wish to thank you for this, in the second place. 

(b) Right : I saw the harbor of Nice, for example. 

(c) Right : He is uncomplimentary, to say the least. 

(d) Right : He is uncomplimentary, to say the least ; and 

I might even call him rude. 



Interpo- 406. A parenthetic phrase 2 standing in the midst of 

commas W ° a s i m pl e predication 3 (separate or component) 3 should be 
enclosed between commas. 

(a) Right : I wish, in the second place, to ask you this. 

(b) Right : I saw, for instance, the harbor of Nice. 

(c) Right : He is, to say the least, uncomplimentary. 

(d) Right : I wish to ask, in the third place, the following 

question, and you will please answer it with candor : 
did he ever, so far as you know, express an interest 
in Miss Carew? [262.] 



Omission 
of second 
comma 



407. Do not omit the necessary comma after an inter- 
polated parenthetic phrase. 

WRONG: He conducted himself, to tell the truth very 

deceitfully. 
Right: He conducted himself, to tell the truth, very 

deceitfully. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, p. 360 ff. 

2 See 345, 392. 3 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



175 



Absolute Phrases 

408. An absolute phrase 1 introducing a simple predi- introduc- 
cation 2 (separate or component) 2 should be followed by a t0 *y ab ~ 
comma. phrase : 

Eight : The zoind being fresh, we made good speed. Comma 

Right : The fire having now increased to an alarming 
degree, reinforcements were sent for. 

409. Such an absolute phrase should also be separated Separation 

by a comma from any preceding conjunction. If such p^e^mg 

a phrase is not separated from a preceding conjunction, conjunc- 

the absolute substantive will in nearly every case be lon 
mistaken for a subject. (Cf. Kule 299.) 

Right : The firemen soon came ; but, the wind being 
high, they could not arrest the fire. 



Conclud- 
ing abso- 
lute 
phrase 
— comma 
before 



410. An absolute phrase 1 standing at the end of a 
simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 should be 
preceded by a comma. 

(a) Right : We made good speed, the wind being fresh. 

(b) Right : I don't want to buy, things being as they are. 

[299.] 

(c) Right : We made good speed, the wind being fresh, and 

we walked along full fourteen knots. 

(d) Right: I don't want to buy, things being as they are; 

but I'll tell you what I'll do : I'll advise Boyd to buy. 
[262.] 

411. An absolute phrase 1 in the midst of a simple Interpo- 

predication 2 (separate or component) 2 should be enclosed g^i u t e ab " 

between commas. phrase — 

two 
(a) Right : He sat for a long time, his eyes fixed on the commas 

fire, and pondered the dilemma ; but there seemed to 

be no solution. 
(6) Right : We decided, the wind being fresh, to sail at once. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238, 241. 



176 



PUNCTUATION 



Omission 
of second 
comma 



Wrong 
comma 
after ab- 
solute sub- 
stantive 



412. Do not omit the necessary comma after an inter- 
polated absolute phrase. 

BAD : We decided, all preparations being complete to 

move on the next day. 
Eight : We decided, all preparations being complete, to 

move on the next day. 

413. An absolute 1 substantive should never be sep- 
arated from its participle 1 by a comma. 

MISLEADING : We threw overboard a good part of the 
, cargo, and the ship, being much lighter, we thought 
the danger was past. 

Right : We threw overboard a good part of the cargo, 
and, the ship being much lighter, we thought the 
danger was past. [409.] 



Short par- 
enthetic 
predica- 
tions 

Conclud- 
ing- 
comma 
before 



Interpo- 
lated — 
two 
commas 



Omission 
of second 
comma 



Parenthetic Predications 

414. A short declarative predication 2 of thinking, 
saying, hearing, etc. (e.g., I think, I believe, it is said, 
I have heard, he asserts, I repeat), used parenthetically 3 
at the end of a simple predication 4 (separate or compo- 
nent), 4 should be preceded by a comma. 

Right : This is Mr. Rowe, I believe. 
Right : He is a good pianist, I have heard ; but I never 
heard him play. 

415. Such a predication standing in the midst of a 
simple predication 4 (separate or component) 4 should 
usually be enclosed between commas. 

Right : This is, I believe, Mr. Rowe. 

Right: There is much to learn, we have been told, from . 

uneducated people, but for my part, give me a duke 

or a college president. 

416. Do not omit the necessary comma after an inter- 
polated predication of the kind just mentioned. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 236 ff. 3 See 392. 4 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



177 



Exception 
— relative 
clauses 



BAD : This is, I think a lot worth owning. [299.] 
Right : This is, I think, a lot worth owning. 

417. Such a predication interpolated in a relative 
clause 1 may be written without being set off by commas. 

(a) Right : The man who I thought was dead suddenly con- 
fronted me. 

(6) Right: Magill, whose poems I supposed were original, 
now appears to have plagiarized. 

(c) Right : Paxton, where they said the scenery was sub- 
lime, disappointed my expectations. 

418. When a short predication of thinking or saying intro- 
stands at the beginning of a predication, it is not paren- j^ 01 ^ 
thetic ; 2 e.g., in " I think this is Mr. Rowe," " I " is the etc., not 
main subject, and " this is Mr. Rowe " is a substantive ]?heTic~ 
clause, 1 the object of " think/"' (Cf. Kule 455.) 

419. A parenthetic 2 interrogative predication asking Confirma- 
for confirmation or assent should be preceded by a comma 
and followed by a question mark when it stands at the 
end of another simple predication 3 (separate or com- 
ponent). 3 

Right : You are the engineer, aren't you? 
Right : Hand me that fiddle, will you ? 

Virtual Predications 

Right: Cool day, isn't it? 

Right : Clever work, don't you think so ? 

420. Such a parenthetic interrogative predication should Interpo- 
be enclosed between dashes or parentheses when it stands . ^ t & e ^ e 7" or 
in the midst of another simple predication 3 (separate or paren- 
component) ; 3 it should be followed by a question mark. eses 

Right : He is — is he not ? — a German. [289.] 
Right : He ought to take his ease (don't you agree with 
me ?) and do nothing but read novels. [289.] 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, p. 360 ff . 

2 See 392. 3 See 238, 241. 



tion or 
assent: 

Conclud- 
ing- 
comma 
after 



178 



PUNCTUATION 



Other par- 
enthetic 
predica- 
tions 

Conclud- 
ing — dash 
or paren- 
theses 



421. An independent predication other than those 
mentioned in Rules 414-420 which is appended to a 
simple predication 1 (separate or component) 1 should be 
preceded by a dash or enclosed between parentheses. 

(a) Right: He is a refugee from the Baltic Provinces — he 

told me so himself. 

(b) Right: I predict his defeat, judging by all appearances 

(I mean really judging — not merely conjecturing). 

(c) Right : He is a refugee from Russia — he told me so 

himself ; but one would hardly suspect it. 

(d) Right : I think he will be defeated (I really think so, 

using my best judgment), but don't tell him I said so. 



No com- 
ma with 
dash 

Other 
marks 
with pa- 
rentheses 



422. If the dash is used in such a case, it should be 
used ' alone — without any other point. 423. If paren- 
theses are used, one point, and only one, should be used 
in addition — namely, the point which, if the parenthetic 
matter were omitted, would follow the preceding word ; 
and this point should be placed after the second paren- 
• thesis mark — not elsewhere. See, for instance, the 
preceding examples, and also the following : 

(a) Right : I will ask him by telephone (I suppose he has a 
telephone) ; and I think he will consent. 

(6) Right : He spoke as follows (I quote literally) : ' ' My 
friends, I have come . . . " 



Inter- 
polated — 
dashes or 
paren- 
theses 



424. An independent predication other than those 
mentioned in Rules 414-420 which is used parentheti- 
cally in the midst of a simple predication x (separate or 
component) * should be enclosed between parentheses or 
dashes. 



Right : I judge by appearances (I mean I really judge ; 

I don't merely conjecture) that he will be defeated. 
Right : I judge by appearances — I mean I really judge ; 

I don't merely conjecture — that he will be defeated. 



i See 238, 241, 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



179 



425. If parentheses are used in such a case, the point or other 
points which, if the parenthetic predication were omitted, m >j ks a 
would be required after the preceding word should be rentheses : 
placed after the second parenthesis — not elsewhere. 

Eight : If you should see him (you might chance to When to 
meet him on the train), give him my message. [349.] be used 

Eight : He gave me a beautiful souvenir (he considered and how- 
it beautiful, at any rate) — namely, a silver-plated 
mug. [387.] 

426. But no point should be used in addition to the 
parentheses unless it would be required were the paren- 
thetic predication omitted. 

WRONG : I will meet him (I give you my word of honor When not 
I will), and give him your message. [In the predica- to be used 
tion "I will meet him and give him your message, 1 ' 
no comma is required after " him."] 
- Eight : I will meet him (I give you my word of honor 
I will) and giveJiim your message. 

427. When dashes are used in such a case, and when, Commas 
if the parenthetic predication were omitted, a comma Joshes • 
would be required after the preceding word, a comma When 
should precede each dash. used 

Eight : When the paper is finished, — that will doubt- 
less be in March, — bring it to me. [349.] 

Eight : If you should see him, — you might meet him 
on the train, — give him my message. [349.] 

428. But no comma should be used if it would not be When not 
required were the parenthetic predication omitted. 



Eight : He took my hat - 
my overcoat. 



- it was a green Alpine — and 



Vocatives 

429. A vocative 1 introducing a simple predication 2 Vocatives: 

(separate or component) 2 should be followed by a comma, introduc- 

or (rarely) by an exclamation mark. tory — 

x J ' J comma 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 2 See 238, 241. af ter 



180 



PUNCTUATION 



Separation 
from pre- 
ceding 
conjunc- 
tions, ex- 
cept and 
or but 



Conclud- 
ing- 
comma 
before 



Interpo- 
lated — 
two 

commas 
usually 



Omission 
of second 
point 



Salutation 
of letter : 

Colon 



Comma 



Eight : John, come here. 

Right : I understand all that ; but John, you haven't 

explained why you locked the door. 
Right : My poor child ! what have they done to you ? 

430. Such a vocative should be separated by a comma 
from any preceding conjunction 1 except and and but. 

Right : If, John, you do as I say, I will give you a cigar. 
Right : But mother, what's the use ? 
Right : I am not to blame ; for, my dear fellow, how 
was I to know ? 

431. A vocative 1 concluding a simple predication 2 
(separate or component) 2 should be preceded by a comma. 

Right : Come here, John. 

Right : What have they done to you, you poor child? 

432. A vocative x standing in the midst of a simple 
predication 2 (simple or component) 2 should be enclosed 
between commas ; 

Right : I command you, John, to come here ; and I in- 
tend, my boy, that you shall obey. 

or (rarely) should be preceded by a comma and followed 
by an exclamation mark. 

Right : Sing, Muse ! the wrath of Achilles. 

433. Do not omit the necessary point after an interpo- 
lated vocative. 

WRONG : I fear, my dear boy that you are losing your 

grip. 
Right : I fear, my dear boy, that you are losing your 

grip. 

434. A vocative forming the salutation of a letter 
should be followed by a colon if the letter is formal ; 

Right : My dear sir : 
Right : Gentlemen : 

by a comma if the letter is not formal. 
1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 2 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



181 



Right : Dear Jack, 

Right : My dear Mrs. Jones, 

435. A vocative introducing a -public speech maybe Salutation 
followed by a colon or a comma — a comma preferably if ° f a s P eecn 
the speech is informal. 



Right : Ladies and gentlemen : . . . 

Right : Mr. Chairman : . . . 

Right : Brothers of Alph' Alpha, again we meet 



Colon 
Comma 



Interjections and Expletives 

436. An interjection * or a parenthetic expletive 1 intro- 
ducing a simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 
should usually be followed by a comma or an exclamation 
mark, according to whether the writer wishes it to ap- 
pear slightly, or decidedly, exclamatory. (For exceptions 
to this rule, see Rule 92.) 

Right : " Had dinner ? " — " Alas, no." 
Right : Alas ! thy glory is departed ! 
Right : He looked prosperous enough, but oh, how old 
he seemed ! 

437. Rule 436 applies to yes and no used as exple- 
tives; 1 e.g., 

Right : " Have you found it? " — " Yes, I have." 
Right: "Give it to me."-"No, I will not." 

438. But it must be remembered that yes and no are 
often used as virtual complete independent predications \ 3 
in that case they should be followed by the period or the 
semicolon. 

WRONG : " Have you found it? " — " Yes, it was hard 

work, though." 
Right : " Yes. It was hard work, though." [258.] 
WRONG : " Give it to me." — "No, why should I ? " 
Right: "No. Why should I?" [258.] 



Introduc- 
tory inter- 
jection or 
expletive 
— comma 
or excla- 
mation 
mark 



Expletive 
yes and no 
— comma 



Complete 
independ- 
ent predi- 
cations 
(virtual) 
— end 
mark 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See 238, 241. 3 See 244. 



182 



PUNCTUATION 



Omission 439. It is an objectionable fault to write the exple- 
of point tives x well, why, and now with no separative mark fol- 
why, now. lowing (see Eule 299). 

(a) BAD : Why my notes have disappeared. [299.] 
Right : Why, my notes have disappeared. 

(6) BAD : Well may I see it? [299.] 
Right : Well, may I see it ? 



Separation 
from 

preceding 
conjunc- 
tions, ex- 
cept and 
and but 



Conclud- 
ing inter- 
jection or 
expletive 
— comma 
before 



440. An interjection 1 or a parenthetic expletive x in- 
troducing a simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 
should usually be separated by a comma from any pre- 
ceding conjunction 1 except and and but. 

Right : I will try ; though, alas, I fear I shall fail. 
Right : But alas ! how fallen . . . 
Right : And hurrah ! here's a boat. 

441. An interjection 1 or a parenthetic expletive 1 con- 
cluding a simple predication 2 (separate or component) 2 
should be preceded by a comma. 

Right : He has gone, alas ! 

Right : He has gone, alas ; but he may not have gone 
far. 



Interpo- 
lated—two 
commas 
or comma 
and ex- 
clamation 
mark 



Omission 
of second 
point 



442. An interjection ! or a parenthetic expletive l 
standing in the midst of a simple predication 2 (separate or 
component) 2 should be enclosed between two commas or 
between a comma and an exclamation mark. 

Right : He has gone, alas, to Coney Island. 

Right : We are, alas ! less wise than we think we are. 

443. Do not omit the necessary point after an inter- 
polated interjection or expletive. 

BAD: Your crocodiles, now are hatched by the sun, I 

suppose. 
Right : Your crocodiles, now, are hatched by the sun, I 

suppose. 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 2 See 238, 241. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



183 



Geographical Names 

444. A geographical name locating a place or region Geograph- 
named immediately before should be separated from the 11^^™ 
context by a comma or commas. or commas 

(a) Right : Madison, Wisconsin, is a pretty town. 
(?;) Right : I live in Madison, Wisconsin. 

445. Do not omit the necessary comma after an inter- 
polated name of the kind just mentioned. 

BAD: I was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1884. 
Right : I was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1884. 



Omission 
of second 
comma 



Time Expressions 

446. (a) The number of a year defining a month or a Time ex- 
day named immediately before should be separated from ^ e ™ a 
the context bv a comma or commas. 



comma 
or 
commas : 

Year 
date 



(1) Right : I returned in May, 1908. 

(2) Right : In May, 1908, I returned. 

(3) Right : On May 14, 1908, I returned. 

(p) The same rule applies to a month date denning a Month 
week day. date 

(1) Right : I went on Tuesday, May 12. 

(2) Right : On Wednesday, May 13, I returned. 

(3) Right : On Friday, February 13, 1909, the firm collapsed. 

447. Do not omit the necessary comma after an inter- Omission 
polated time expression. comma^ 

BAD: On March 16, 1902 we landed. 
Right : On March 16, 1902, we landed. 



Interrupted Structure 

448. When a predication is broken off and not com- Structure 
pleted, the break should be marked by a dash. pietely 

Right : Now we come to the — Oh, there is one thing I off — dash 
must mention first. 



184 



PUNCTUATION 



Syntactic 
substitute 
— dash 



Other 
points 
with the 
dash: 



Comma 
Semicolon 



Faltering 
speech -— 
dash 



449. When a member of a predication is substituted 
for a preceding expression or series of expressions, so that 
that expression or series is left without grammatical con- 
struction, 1 the substituted member should be preceded by 
a dash. 

Right : I wonder whether the men he has robbed, 
cheated, and driven to desperation — whether these 
will forgive him. 

450. When the substitute sums up a series of coor- 
dinate l expressions, the same mark (either the comma 
or the semicolon) which separates the members of the 
series should be placed before the dash. 

(a) Right : The rattle of musketry, the clash of swords, 
the thunder of the cannonade, — these were the 
sounds he loved to hear. 

(fi) Right : If you go to bed with the lamb and rise with 
the lark, as the proverb expresses it ; never loiter 
or trifle ; always employ your time, whether you are 
so inclined or not, in some praiseworthy manner ; — 
if you do all this, you will probably not be asked to 
join the Nu Pi fraternity. 

451. In the representation of hesitating or faltering 
utterance, a repeated member of a predication should be 
preceded by a dash ; 

Right: "I — I have done you — have done you a 
wrong, 1 ' she faltered. 

and places where the speaker hesitates but does not re- 
peat are often indicated likewise. 

Right: "Tell — tell the boy — I'm still — thinking — 
thinking of him," he managed to say, and then fell 
back in a sort of — swoon. 



Super- 
fluous 
commas 



Superfluous Interior Punctuation 

452. Commas should not be used at places where 
there is no reason for using them. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



185 



BAD : I would be selling groceries, at one minute, and In general 
dry goods, at the next. At times, it was very hard, 
for me, to keep my temper. One does not know, 
what the life of a clerk is, until one has tried it. 

Right : I would be selling groceries at one minute and 
dry goods at the next. At times it was very hard for 
me to keep my temper. One does not know what 
the life of a clerk is until one has tried it. 



453. A comma should not be used after a relative After 
pronoun 1 standing in the midst of its clause. 1 pronoun 

BAD : He gave me an interesting puzzle, the solution of 

which, helped to pass the time. 
Right : He gave me an interesting puzzle, the solution 

of which helped to pass the time. [386.] 

454. (a) A verb having as its object a substantive Before 
clause * should not be separated from that clause by a \^)t T % 
comma. This rule applies particularly to verbs of say- who, what, 
ing, hearing, or thinking, governing clauses introduced clauses^ * 
by that, how, ichether, who, ivhat, and which. (Cf. 

Rule 382.) 

(1) Right : He told us that the boat was ready. Object 

(2) Right : I do not know how it occurred. 

(3) Right : Do you know whether it is ready ? 

(4) Right : I know perfectly well who the man is ; and I 

know precisely what he wants. 

(b) A verb or an adjective modified by a substantive Adverbial 

clause in the construction of an adverbial substantive substan- 
tive 
should not be separated from the clause by a comma. 

(Cf. Rule 382.) 

(1) Right : I was astonished that the boat was ready. 

(2) Right : Are you sure that the boat is ready ? 

(3) Right : I was ignorant how it occurred. 

(4) Right : Are you aware who he is ? 

(5) Right : I am sorry that you are offended. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 

2 See Adverbial substantive and also Substantive clause in 
the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



186 



PUNCTUATION 



That 
omitted 



Before 
compound 
relative 
what 

Within 

ichat 

clause 



Before 
result 
that 
clause 



After that 



455. Rule 454 applies also to substantive clauses 
from which the conjunction that is colloquially omitted. 
(Cf. Rule 418.) 

(a) Clauses objects of verbs (454 a) 

(1) Right : I said he was my brother. 

(2) Right: I have heard she is a good cook. 

(3) Right : I think you are mistaken. 

(6) Clauses adverbially modifying verbs or adjectives 

(454 b) 

(1) Right : I am sure he is an anarchist. 

(2) Right : I am sorry it has gone. 

(3) Right : I am astonished he hasn't come yet. 

456. The compound relative 1 pronoun ivhat should 
not be separated by a comma from a verb or preposition 
governing 1 it, or from a verb of which it is the predicate 
substantive. 1 457. Nor should a comma be used without 
good reason inside a clause 1 introduced by the compound 
relative what. 

(a) Right : He showed me what I supposed was a sponge. 

(b) Right : He is what may be called a charlatan. 

(c) Right : She pointed to what seemed to be bears' tracks. 

458. A result clause 1 introduced by that should not 
be separated by a comma from the element it modifies. 1 
(Cf. Rule 358.) 

Right : The darkness was so intense that one could 
almost feel it. [358.] 

459. The conjunction 1 that should not be separated 
by a comma from the clause l it introduces. 

(a) BAD : The inspector reported that, the machinery was 
out of order. 
Right : The inspector reported that the machinery was 
r- out of order. 



1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 187 

(5) BAD: We stopped awhile in order that, our horses 
might be refreshed. 
Right: We stopped awhile in order that our horses 
might be refreshed. 

460. A comma should rarely be used after and, (Cf. After and 
Rules 355, 397, 404, 430, 440.) 

(a) BAD : The twig began to bend and, suddenly it broke 

in two in the middle. 
Right : The twig began to bend, and suddenly it broke 
in two in the middle. [317.] 

(b) BAD : Take some blankets and, by all means an over- 

coat. 
Right : Take some blankets and by all means an over- 
coat. [320.] 

But see Rule 409. 

461. A noun or pronoun 1 should not be separated Before my- 
from a following intensive by a comma. J ' 

Right : I myself saw it. 

Right : The prince himself was present. 

462. No mark of punctuation should be placed before Super- 
the first member of a series of coordinate 1 elements if no ^ointe De _ 
mark would be required before a single element in the fore series 
place of the series. 

(a) Right : During the first year I studied Latin, Greek, and 

history. 

(b) Right : It is valuable (1) to the student, (2) to the 

statesman, (3) to the merchant. 

The Cardinal Error of Interior Punctuation 

463. The Period Fault. — The worst error of interior The period 
punctuation is to put a period before a group of words t 
that is not an independent predication, 2 but the conclud- 
ing member of one, and to capitalize such a group as if 

it were a new independent predication. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 3G0 ff. 2 See 242. 



188 



PUNCTUATION 



With ap- 
positives 



With par- 
ticiples 



With 

absolute 
phrases 



With de- 
pendent 
clauses 



This error arises in the treatment of many kinds of 
syntactic elements — among them the following : 

464. Appositives. — An appositive * following its prin- 
cipal l should not be capitalized and set off by a period. 

BAD : Among her suitors were two she favored most. 

One a college graduate of small means, the other a 

rich capitalist. 
Right : Among her suitors were two she favored most 

— one a college graduate of small means, the other a 

rich capitalist. [374, 377.] 

465. Participial Phrases. — A participial phrase l fol- 
lowing its principal x should not be capitalized and set off 
by a period. 

BAD : It offers a course for those who wish to study 

art. At the same time affording opportunity for 

literary study. 
Right : It offers a course for those w T ho wish to study 

art, at the same time affording opportunity for 

literary study. [337.] 

466. Absolute Phrases. — An absolute 1 phrase closing 
a predication 2 should not be capitalized and set off by a 
period. 

BAD : The passage should be divided into two para- 
graphs. The first comprising lines 1-16 and the 
second comprising lines 17-30. 

Right : The passage should be divided into two para- 
graphs, the first comprising lines 1-16, and the second 
comprising lines 17-30. [410.] 

467. Dependent Clauses. — A dependent clause * follow- 
ing its principal l should not be capitalized and set off by 
a period. 

BAD : The care of oil lamps requires every day some 
untidy and disagreeable labor. While electric lights 
give the housekeeper no trouble. 

l See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 2 See 236 ff. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



189 



Right : The care of oil lamps requires every day some 
untidy and disagreeable labor, while electric lights 
give the housekeeper no trouble. [359.] 

MATTERS CONCERNING BOTH INTERIOR AND END 
PUNCTUATION 

Separative Punctuation with Direct Quotations 

468. A verb of saying or thinking having as its object 1 He mid 
a direct quotation, 1 and preceding the quotation, should E^omma 
usually be separated from the quotation by a comma. usually 

Right : He said in a whisper, u Don't speak." 

Right: Holding- out his hand he said, "Give me that 

ietter." 

469. But a verb of saying or thinking followed imme- Exception 
diately by a quotation of only one or two words, which 
does not close the containing predication, need not be 
followed by a comma. 

Right : He cried " Fire ! " and began to run. 



470. Directly quoted words incorporated in an original Quoted 
predication 2 and not introduced by a verb of saying or i nC o rpo _ 
thinking should not be preceded by any mark of separative rated — no 
punctuation unless such mark would be required were the 
words the author's own. It is a mistake to suppose that 
every direct quotation should be preceded by a comma, 
(Cf.Rule 211.) 

WRONG: They ate, " the fruit of that forbidden tree." 
Right : They ate " the fruit of that forbidden tree." 
BAD: He has the greatest contempt for, " gold-brick 

men," as he calls them. 
Right: He has the greatest contempt for "gold-brick 

men," as he calls them. 
BAD: It fills a, "long-felt want." 
Right : It fills a "long-felt want." 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 2 See 236 ff. 



190 



PUNCTUATION 



Colon 471. A verb of saying introducing a passage of sev- 

extended era ^ paragraphs should be followed by a colon ; see the 
quotation example under Eule 501. 



Said he 
inter- 
polated : 

Said he 
excluded 



472. When an expression like said he is interpolated 
within a quotation or placed after it, the following rules 
apply (473-479) : 473. The said he should be preceded 
by a terminal 1 quotation mark and followed by an initial 1 
quotation mark. 

Eight : "If that is true," he said, "lam lost." 



Points 
before 

said he : 

Question 
mark 

Exclama- 
tion mark 

Comma 



Points 
after 
said he : 
Period or 
semicolon 
if predi- 
cation is 
complete 

Comma 
fault by 
violation 



474. The quoted words preceding the said he should 
be followed by a question or exclamation mark if they 
form a complete independent interrogative or exclamative 
predication ; 2 otherwise by a comma ; never by a period 
or semicolon. 



Right 
Right 
Right 
Right 



" Will you help ? " he asked. 

" Help I" he cried. 

"I will help," he said. 

" I will help you," he said ; ( 



you deserve it." 



475. If the quoted words preceding the said he would 
be followed, but for the said he, by a period or a semi- 
colon, a period or a semicolon should follow the said he. 
In such a case, to put a comma after the said he is to 
commit the comma fault (see Rule 293). 

BAD (comma fault): "Look in my eyes," she said, 

" where is my five-pound note ?" 
Right: " Look in my eyes," she said. "Where is my 

five-pound note?" 
BAD (comma fault) : "I don't know," he -answered 

lamely, "truly, I haven't seen it." 
Right : " I don't know," he answered lamely. "Truly, 

I haven't seen it." 
Right : "I don't know," he answered lamely; "truly, 

I haven't seen it." [276.] 



i See 230. 



2 See 243. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 191 

476. If the quoted words preceding the said he are Period if 
followed (according to Rule 474) by a question or ex- ^ exc?a!- 

clamation mark, a period should follow the said he. mation 

mark 

Right: " Won't you come?" she said. "We need ^ e ; des 
you." l ie 

477. In every case in which a period or semicolon is Comma if 
not required (according to Rules 575 and 576) after the fkm is^ot 
said he, a comma should follow the said he. complete 

Right: "I am," growled the assassin, "your dooms- 
man." 

478. The said he should not be capitalized. Said he 

not cap- 
Right : " Go to the treasury," said the king, " and help italized 
yourself." 

479. The part of the quotation following the said he Wrong 
should not be capitalized unless it is a new predication. after 

said he 
Right : "Hammer on the window," advised the police- 
man, "until he gets up." 

The Dash Fault 

480. Dashes should not be used indiscriminately where Indiscrim- 
periods, colons, semicolons, commas, question marks, and 1 ^ e ^ se 
exclamation marks properly belong. The use of this 
makeshift argues ignorance of the principles of punctu- 
ation. 

Points Beginning Lines 

481 . A period, a comma, a colon, a semicolon, an ex- Points at 
clamation mark, a question mark, or a hyphen should | ^Une S 
never be placed at the beginning of a line. A dash, how- 
ever, may stand at the beginning of a line. 



192 



PUNCTUATION 



Possessive 
singular : 

Regular 

Nouns in s 



Possessive 
plural 



Hers, 
yours, etc. 

Its 



One's, 
ones' 



DESIGXATIYE PUNCTUATION 

The Possessive Case x 

482. In the possessive 2 singular 2 of a noun, an apos- 
trophe should precede the inflectional 2 s ; e.g., " the boy's 
cap." 483. The possessive 2 singular 2 of a noun ending 
in s is formed by adding 's or by adding simply an 
apostrophe. 

WRONG : Dicken's novels. Burn's poems. 

Right : Dickens' novels, or Dickens's novels. Burns' 

poems, or Burns's poems. 
Right : Charles's horse. Mr. Jones's house. 

484. In the possessive 2 plural 2 of a noun of which the 
nominative 2 plural ends in s, an apostrophe should follow 
the final s ; e.g., "the boys' caps." 485. In the pos- 
sessive plural of other nouns, an apostrophe should pre- 
cede the 
oxen's. 



final s ; e.g., men's, women's, children's, 



486. In the possessives hers, ours , yours, theirs, and 
its there should be no apostrophe. 487. Rule 486 is 
very often violated with the possessive its. The ex- 
pression it's is proper only as a contraction of it is. 
488. The possessive 2 singular 2 of one should be written 
one's and the possessive plural ones' . 



Plurals 
in 's 



The Plural of Letters and Symbols 

489. The plural 2 of letters of the alphabet and of 
numerical symbols is formed by adding 's to the letter or 
symbol. The plural of a word considered as a word, or a 
group of words considered as a group of words, may a]so 
be formed in the same way. 



1 See Exercises 739-744. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 
larly the tables under Substantive. 



See particu- 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 193 

Right : There are three A's, four IPs, seventeen s's, and 

a good many batfs on this page. [224.] 
Right : Your " I will's " and your " I will not's " sound 

very magisterial. [22-4.] 

490.. But the regular plural of a noun should never be incorrect 
formed by adding 's. Piano, Perry, Rogers, for instance, use of s 
form the plurals pianos, Perry s, Rogerses (see Rules 
75, 76). 

Abbreviations 

491. A period should be used after an abbreviated Period 
word or a single- or double initial letter representing a foUowin g 
word ; as etc., viz., Mrs., i.e., e.g., LL.D., pp. 

492. The abbreviation of a plural 1 word sometimes LL.D. etc. 
consists of the initial letter doubled ; for" instance, LL. 

for laws, pp. for pages, ff. for following {pages, lines, 
etc.), II. for lines. In such an abbreviation the two letters 
should not be separated by a period. 

A BLUNDER : L.L.D. 
Right : LL.D. 

Contractions 

493. In a contracted word an apostrophe should stand Position 
in the place of the omitted letter or letters, not elsewhere. tjfophe S " 

WRONG: Hav'nt, do'nt, does'nt, ca'nt, is'nt. 
Right: Haven't, don't, doesn't, can't, isn't. 

494. The apostrophe should not be omitted from O'clock 
o'clock. 

495. But the preposition 1 or conjunction * till and the Till and 
preposition or adverb 1 round are not contractions and 
should not be preceded by an apostrophe. 

Right : Wait till I come. 

Right : Wrap it round your wrist. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



194 



PUNCTUATION 



Compound Words 

The designation of compound words by the hyphen is, 
for convenience, treated in Kules 102-124. 



For direct, 
not in- 
direct, 
quotations 



Word-Breaking 

The indication by the hyphen that a word is divided 
at the end of a line is, for convenience, treated in Kules 
173-183. 

Direct Quotations 1 

496. Quotation marks should enclose direct 2 quota- 
tions, but not indirect 2 quotations. 

WRONG : He said, " that he was grieved." 
Right : He said that he was grieved. [454a.] 
Right: He said, "lam grieved." [468.] 



I say, etc. 497. An original statement introduced or emphasized 

taken" ^J I say, let me say, I reply, I declare, I ask, or an 

quotation analogous expression, is not a quotation, and should not 
marks 

be enclosed between quotation marks. 

WRONG : Let me say at once, " The expense is large." 
Right : Let me say at once the expense is large. [455a.] 

Misuse 498. Immediately consecutive sentences of a quotation 
withm a should never be enclosed in separate pairs of quotation 
marks. 

BAD : She said, " Is this the truth ? " " Then I must 
tell my husband." " He ought to know." 

Right : She said, " Is this the truth ? Then I must tell 
my husband. He ought to know." [468.] 

Omission 499. Do not fail to put quotation marks at the begin- 
ning and at the end of every direct quotation. 

* See Exercises 745-749, 753. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 £f. 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 



195 



500. A quotation within a quotation should be marked Quotation 
by single quotation marks; one within that by double ^o^ion 
marks. 

WRONG : " Then," continued Brightman, " the captain 

shouted, "Cast off!" 
Right: "Then," continued Brightman, " the captain 

shouted, 'Cast off!'" 
WRONG : I repeated those lines of Tennyson 

" Thou shalt hear the " Never, never," whispered by the 
phantom years, 
And a song from out the distance in the ringing of 
thine ears " 

until I knew them by heart. 

Right : I repeated those lines of Tennyson 

" Thou shalt hear the 'Never, never,' whispered by the 
phantom years, 
And a song from out the distance in the ringing of 
thine ears " 

until I knew them by heart. 

501. In a quotation that consists of several para- Quotation 
graphs, quotation marks should be placed at the be- ^r^J 613,1 
ginning of each paragraph, but not at the end of any graphs 
paragraph except the last. 

Right : 

Apropos of the point under discussion, allow me to 
quote from an article by Professor Starr in a recent 
number of the Bed Book. Professor Starr says : 

"Lippert recognizes two types of dress, to which he 
gives the names of Northern and Southern. They 
differ from each other markedly. 

"The Southern type of dress is directly developed 
from the shoulder cape and waist skirt. Its idea is 
covering and decoration ; it presents soft fabrics 
draped gracefully upon the body. In its full develop- 
ment it presents flowing jackets with wide sleeves and 
ample skirts, simple or divided. It is to-day the dress 
of northern Africa, of Turkey, India, Persia, China, 
and Japan. 

"The Northern type of dress embodies as its chief 
idea convenience and practicality ; the ornamental 
origin is lost sight of; it includes the skin clothing of 
the Eskimos, and the protective idea is evident. Its 



196 



PUNCTUATION 



Relative 
position of 
question 
or excla- 
mation 
mark: 
Quotation 
mark 
outside 

Inside 



No third 
point 



Question 
or excla- 
mation 
marks 
not to be 
doubled 



forms are due to the tight tying of skins or stuffs 
around the different portions of the body. Its typical 
forms are close-fitting jackets and trousers." 

502. When a quotation mark and a question or excla- 
mation mark both follow the same word, (a) the ques- 
tion or exclamation mark should stand first if it applies 
to the quotation and not to the predication containing the 
quotation ; 

Right : He said, " Are you sure ?" 

(b) the quotation mark should stand first if the other 
mark applies, not to the quotation, but to the predica- 
tion containing the quotation ; 



Right: Did the letter contain the expression l 

squabs"? [381.] 
Right : Will he say, " Come and rest awhile " ? 



downy 



(c) no comma or period or colon or semicolon should 
be used in addition to the quotation mark and the ques- 
tion or exclamation mark. 

WRONG : He cried " Fire ! ", and the people were scared. 
Right: He cried " Fire ! " and the people were scared. 
WRONG : He called, " What cheer ? ". 
Right : , He called, " What cheer ? " 

503. A quotation mark should not be both preceded 
and followed by a question or an exclamation mark, nor 
should it be preceded by the one mark and followed by 
the other. When such punctuation might logically be 
used, the mark that would precede the quotation mark 
should be dispensed with. 

Logical but. NOT PERMISSIBLE: Did he ask, "What 

is the price ?" ? 
Right : Did he ask, " What is the price " ? 
Logical but NOT PERMISSIBLE: How absurd of you 

to ask, " Where ami?"! 
Right : How absurd of you to ask, u Where am I'M 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 197 

504. When a word is followed by a quotation mark Period or 
and a period or a comma besides, the period or the comma < ,()mma 
should always precede the quotation mark. inside 

Right: "If yon have a light," said John, "give it to 

me.' 1 
Eight: He asked me for what he called a ' light," but 

I had none. 

505. When a word is followed by a quotation mark Colon or 
and a semicolon or a colon besides, the semicolon or the always ° n 
colon should always follow the quotation mark. outside 

Right: I have, seen that "abode of poverty"; and the 

"poverty" is -truly marvelous. 
Right : I have this to say regarding the man's "abject 

poverty": that it is fictitious. [374.] 



Interpolation in Quoted Matter 

506. Words enclosed in parenthesis marks ( ), occurring Brackets 
in a quotation, are understood to belong to the quotation ; 

words enclosed in brackets [ ] are understood to be in- 
terpolated by the writer quoting. 

Right : It was in Faneuil Hall in 1826 that Webster said, 
"They [Adams and Jefferson] are no more. They 
are dead. But how little is there of the great and 
good which can die ! " 

507. In narrative, however, an interpolation made by Terminal 
the writer in quoted matter is ordinarily best designated a JJo t 1 "|o n al 
by a terminal 1 quotation mark at the left and an initial 1 marks 
quotation mark at the right, thus : 

Right : " Adam," he said, "leave the room." [473.] 
Right: My uncle continued, "You bet your life" (he 

meant most assuredly) "he will go when I tell him to. 

By the great Magunn" (he meant the great mogul, I 

suppose), "if he refuses, I'll disinherit him I 1 ' 

i See 230. 



198 



PUNCTUATION 



Technical Terms 

Unfamil- 508. Quotation marks may be used to enclose a tech- 

iar terms n i ca i term presumably unfamiliar to the reader. 

Eight: The next process is the ''driving" of the logs 

downstream. 
Eight: Nevertheless should always be written "solid." 

[224.] 



Familiar 
— no 
marks 



509. No such marking is needed for technical or 
quasi-technical terms that are perfectly familiar to the 
reader. None is ordinarily needed, for instance, for wire- 
puller, boss, off year, touch-down, kick-off, haze, corner 
the market. 



Slang and 
nicknames 

Good 
English 
mistaken 
for slang 



Proper 
names 
mistaken 
for nick- 
names 

Humorous 
context — 
no marks 



Rhetorical Effects 

Apology 

510. Quotation marks are sometimes used to indicate 
apology for slang or nicknames. But note: 511. No 
such apology should be made for expressions that are 
not slang, such as hard hit, brace up, rough it, to duck, 
to oust, to loaf, to cut a figure, the why's and where- 
fore's, the forties, willy nilly, day dreams, proxy, 
bugbear, humbug, hoax, tomfoolery, bamboozle, whoop, 
ninny, milksop, skinflint, parson ; or for names that 
are not nicknames, such as Ben Jonson, Mrs. Jack 
Gardner ; or for nicknames by which the bearers are 
called oftener than by their regular names, such as Tom 
Piatt, Tom Johnson, Jim Corbett. 512. In a humor- 
ous context such apology should not be made; it is out 
of place, and an annoyance to the reader. 

INARTISTIC: When radicalism " threw up its hat" for 
"Eob" Eowland, "rough-house," and reform, con- 
servatism "took to the tall timbers." " Eob," though 
u cock of the walk " in the capital, has been u sassed " 
by his home paper, which attributes his influence tQ 
hypnotism and "hot air." 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 



199 



Improved in effectiveness : When radicalism threw up 
its hat for Rob Rowland, rough-house, • and reform, 
conservatism took to the tall timbers. Rob, though 
cock of the walk in the capital, has been sassed by his 
home paper, which attributes his influence to hypno- 
tism and hot air. 

513. In a colloquial context such apology should not be Colloquial 

made ; it is in such a case an affectation. context — 

* no marks 

OBJECTIONABLE: I was warned not to "cut" any 
more classes or " flunk" in -any more recitations. 

Right: I was warned not to cut any more classes or 
flunk in any more recitations. 

514. In a quoted speech slang and nicknames should Falsely 



not be enclosed between single quotation marks. 

ABSURD : "lam afraid, 'Tom,' that you're 'stung,' " 

said Jack cheerfully. 
Right: "I am afraid, Tom, that you're stung," said 

Jack cheerfully. 
BAD : " I object," said Lorimer, "to this 'skin game' 

you are trying to ' hand ' me." 
Right: "I object," said Lorimer, "to this skin game 

you are trying to hand me." 



ascribed 
apology 



515. 



Diminished Prominence 
A complete independent predication, closed by Whole 



a period and not used parenthetically, 1 may be included parenthe^" 

between parentheses, in order that it may be made less ses 

prominent. 516. In such a case the period should pre- Position of 

cede the second parenthesis mark. period 

. Right : I cannot speak here of reason and will. (These 
subjects will be treated in later chapters.) Let us 
confine ourselves for the present to attention. 

517. Any modifier, 2 any parenthetic 1 element, and Member 

any expression consisting of a pure coordinating con- Nation 6 — 

parenthe- 

1 See 392. 2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . ses 



200 



PUNCTUATION 



junction 1 and the element it introduces, may be enclosed 
between parentheses, in order that it may be made less 
prominent. 

Right: They sent young Stacy (who, of course, was 
quite inexperienced) and meanwhile tried to tem- 
porize. 

Right : He opened the window and (there being no 
other means of escape) jumped to the ground. 

Right: Let every man (and every woman, too, for that 
matter) endeavor to make this a cleaner city. 

518. In such a case, the point which, if the paren- 
thesized matter were omitted, would be required after the 
preceding word should be placed after the second paren- 
thesis mark. 

Right : Although he has had no experience in this work 
(or, indeed, in any other work), you propose him as 
manager! [349.] 

Right : I oppose him because he has had no experience 
in this work (or any other work) . 

When not 519. But no point should be used in addition to the 
parentheses unless it would be required were the paren- 
thesized matter omitted. 

WRONG: The sheriff gave him (as his oath required), 
the most effective help. [The predication " The sheriff 
gave him the most effective help " requires no comma 
after "him."] 

Right : The sheriff gave him (as his oath required) the 
most effective help. 



Additional 
points : 

When 
used, and 
how 



Interpo- 
lated mem- 
ber — two 
dashes 



Afterthought 

520. Any modifier, 2 any parenthetic 3 element, or any 
expression consisting of a pure coordinating conjunction 1 
and the element it introduces, may, if it stands in the 
midst of a predication, be enclosed between dashes in 
order to produce the rhetorical effect of afterthought. 



i See 237. 
s See 392. 



2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 201 

Right: He practiced his profession — not very success- 
fully — for two years. 

Right : Oh yes; I'm interested — more or less — in pas- 
tels. 

Right : I have never — to tell the truth — read any of 
your novels. 

Right: He lectured Harry — and incidentally me — on 
the sin of robbing birds' nests. 

521. When a predication contains matter enclosed Commas 
thus between dashes, and when, if such matter were Y^ 

(is snps * 

omitted, a comma would be required after the preceding 
word, a comma should precede each dash. used 

Right : When he had practiced his profession for two 
years, — not very successfully, — he decided to give it 
up. [349.] 

Right : He tried to open the window, — no other escape 
being available, — but it stuck. [318.] 

522; But no comma should be used in addition to the When not 
dashes unless one would be required were the matter set 
off by the dashes omitted. . 

WRONG : He practiced his profession, — not very suc- 
cessfully, — in St. Louis. [In " He practiced his pro- 
fession in St. Louis," no comma is required after 
"profession."] 

Right : He practiced his profession — not very success- 
fully — in St. Louis. 

523. Any modifier, 1 any parenthetic 2 element, or any Final 
expression consisting of a pure coordinating conjunction 3 ^h^"" 
and the element it introduces, may, when it stands at the 
end of a predication, be preceded by a dash in order to 
produce the rhetorical effect of afterthought. 524. In No comma 
such a case no comma should precede the dash. 

(a) Right : He may have signed it — though I would rather 

die than believe he did. 
(6) Right : He sent his love to all the family — and asked 

for more money. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff . 

2 See 392. « See 237. 



202 



PUNCTUATION 



Abuse of 
the device 



Pause de- 
noted by 
dash 



(c) Right : It is a good thing to ask few questions — espe- 

cially about other people's money matters. 

(d) Eight : Most emphatically I say they should be dis- 

charged at once — the case of Burns being, perhaps, 
reserved for further consideration. 

525. This use of the dash is sometimes improperly ex- 
tended to new complete independent predications 1 which 
express afterthought. Note that it applies properly only 
to the concluding member of a predication. 

WRONG : They should be discharged at once — the case 
of Burns, perhaps, may be reserved. [480.] 

Right : They should be discharged at once. The case 
of Burns, perhaps, may be reserved. [258.] 

Pause 

526. Any word or group of words concluding a predi- 
cation may be preceded by a dash in order to produce the 
rhetorical effect of pause. 

Right : And from all this hardship we gain — what ? 

527. As was said above (see Rule 451), hesitation 
or faltering may be shown by the dash. 



Wonder or 
mirth de- 
noted by 
exclama- 
tion mark 



Wonder or Mirth 

528. An interjection 2 in any position, a vocative 2 in 
any position, any expression enclosed between dashes or 
parentheses, and any independent declarative or impera- 
tive predication (actual or virtual) 3 may be followed by 
an exclamation point to indicate that it is uttered with 
emotion of some sort — particularly astonishment or 
mirth. (Cf. Rules 279, 429, 432, 436, 442.) 

Right : And Mamie — the only lady there, mind you ! — 
was as grave as a judge. 

i See 243. 

2 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 f£. 

3 See 242-244. 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 203 

Right : The only doctor we could find (namely, the vil- 
lage horse doctor !) pronounced it a case of angina 
pectoris. 

Inquiry 

529. In an interrogative predication any member may Eager in- 

be followed by a question mark to indicate insistent or qu l r ^ *? e " 

eager inquiry. (Cf. Rule 208.) repeated 

question 
Right : Have you pistols ? shot ? powder ? mark 

Right : Who took it ? and where has he taken it ? 

530. As has been already noticed (see Rule 287), a 
predication declarative in form but interrogative in sense 
may be designated as interrogative by the question mark. 

Conjecture 

531. The fact that a statement — particularly of a Conjecture 
date — is conjectural may be indicated by a parenthe- Q^estfon^ 
sized question mark. mark 

Right : These events occurred in 411 b.c. (?) 



532. But the use of a parenthesized question mark as a Abuse of 
notice of humor or irony is a puerility. (Cf. Rules 227, the device 
533/.) 

BAD : After his polite (?) remarks we have nothing 

more to say. 
Right : After his polite remarks we have nothing more 

to say. 

Sundry Errors of Designative Punctuation 

533. Quotation marks should not be used (a) to Misuses of 

enclose the title at the head of a composition unless the ^mrks 1 - 011 

title is a quotation ; (b) to enclose proper names, 1 in- Heading 

eluding names of animals. Proper 

names 
1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



204 



PUNCTUATION 



Letters 
and sym- 
bols 



Coined 
words 



Prover- 
bial 
phrases 



Labeling 
humor 



No reason 
at all 



Misuses of 
parenthe- 
ses and 
brackets : 
Emphasis 



WRONG : I expect to go to " Ober-Ammergau." 
Eight : I expect to go to Ober-Ammergau. 
WRONG : " Thomas " and " Rover " were good friends. 
Right : Thomas and Rover were good friends. 

(c) to enclose letters and symbols that are not quoted ; 

WRONG : He makes a figure "2" like the letter u z." 
Right : He makes a figure 2 like the letter z. 

(d) to enclose words coined extempore; 

WRONG : The manning and " womaning " of the enter- 
prise will be difficult. 

Right : The manning and womaning of the enterprise 
will be difficult. 

WRONG : It is not bronchitis or peritonitis or any of 
the u itises." 

Right : It is not bronchitis or peritonitis or any of the 
itises. 

(e) to enclose proverbial phrases ; 

WRONG : He seemed to be " as mad as a March hare." 
Right : He seemed to be as mad as a March hare. 
WRONG : It was " nipped in the bud." 
Right : It was nipped in the bud. 

(/) to serve the undignified and inartistic purpose of 
labeling one's own humor or irony (cf. Rules 227, 532) ; 

BAD : Such is the ardor of this " pious " Hotspur. 

Right : Such is the ardor of this pious Hotspur. 

BAD : Senator Piatt's speech on the bill was a sort of 

" funeral oration." 
Right : Senator Piatt's speech on the bill was a sort of 

funeral oration. 

(g) for no reason at all. 

BAD : If the Creator in his u power and munificence " 
is good to me, I shall gain "distinguished success." 

Right : If the Creator in his power and munificence is 
good to me, I shall gain distinguished success. 

534. Neither parentheses nor brackets should be used 
(a) To emphasize a word (see Rules 216, 226) ; 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 205 

BAD: "The man (who) they thought was dead sur- 
prised them " is correct. 

Right : " The man ivho they thought was dead surprised 
them " is correct. 

{J)) to enclose a word about which something is said as a Words 
word (see Rules 216, 224) j discussed 

WRONG : (Party) is often incorrectly used for (person). 
Right : Party is often incorrectly used tor person. 

(c) to indicate the title of a book (see Rules 216, 2lY) ; Literary 

titles 
WRONG : Garland's story (Among the Corn Bows) is 

pathetic. 
Right : Garland's story Among the Corn Bows is 

pathetic. 

(d) to enclose a letter, number, or symbol which is not Letters 
used parenthetically ; bofs^" 1 " 

BAD : A (v) shaped plate of steel. 
Right : A v-shaped plate of steel. 
BAD : It is marked with the figure (2). 
Right : It is marked with the figure 2. 

535. The first of a pair of quotation marks, paren- initial 

theses, or brackets should never be placed at the end of a Rotation 
' r mark, pa- 

line, renthesis, 

or bracket 
BAD : He stepped up to me and said gruffly, " at end of 

You are wanted." nne 

Right : He stepped up to me and said gruffly, 

11 You are wanted." 
BAD : . . ..... The twelve o'clock whistles ( 

they were usually late) at last began to blow. 

Right : The twelve o'clock whistles 

(they were usually late) at last began to blow. 



PAKAGRAPHING 

Introduction: The Meaning of the Term Thought- 
component 1 



Every 
composi- 
tion a 
series of 
passages 
distinct in 
topic 



536. Before the rules for paragraphing are given, it is 
necessary to explain a term frequently used in those 
rules. This is the term thought-component. 

A composition of any kind on any subject necessarily 
discusses a number of different topics which form 
divisions of the main subject. An essay on George 
Washington will necessarily discuss several topics that 
form divisions of the subject George Washington — 
such topics as these : 

Washington's early life 
His military career 
His political career 
His personal character 

Again, an essay on the smaller subject The Personal 
Character of Washington will necessarily discuss topics 
falling under this subject — for example, 

His dignity 

His pride 

His sense of humor 

His piety 






Again, an essay on TJie Dignity of Washington 
necessarily discuss several topics falling under 
subject — for example, 

His dignity of speech 

The dignity of his literary style 

His dignity of bearing 

His breaches of dignity 

i See Exercises 750-752. 
206 • 



will 
this 






THOUGHT-COMPONENTS 207 

A composition explaining the game of baseball will 
necessarily discuss several topics falling under the main 
subject — for example, 

The field 

The apparatus 

The stations of the players 

The method of play 

A composition giving an account of a picnic will neces- 
sarily deal with several topics — for example, 

The meeting of the party 
The journey to the ground 
The dinner 
The games 

An editorial on an athletic victory will necessarily deal 
with several topics — for example, 

Brief summary of the game 

Special praise for Flaherty's end run 

Hopes suggested by the victory 

Every composition is thus made up of a series of passages, 
each distinct in topic from what precedes and follows. 
These passages may consist of one sentence, of two or 
three sentences, or of an indefinite number of sentences. 
Such passages will hereafter be called thought-components. 
A component is a part. The components of a pair of 
scissors are the right blade, the left blade, and the rivet. 
To analyze a thing is to observe or point out its com- Analysis 
ponents. Many things can be analyzed in several differ- 
ent ways — or, to use a common term, can be analyzed 
on several different bases. The population of a certain 
city, analyzed on the basis of its individuals, is made up 
of fifty thousand components ; analyzed on the basis of 
sex, it is made up of two components ; analyzed on the 
basis of nationality, it is made up of six components ; 
analyzed on the basis of religious sects, it is made up 
of eight components. Likewise a composition may be 



on differ- 
ent bases 



208 



PARAGRAPHING 



Analysis 
on the 
basis of 
thought 



Method of 
analyzing 
a compo- 
sition into 
thought- 
compo- 
nents 



analyzed on several different bases. A certain compo- 
sition on Queen Elizabeth, if analyzed on the basis of 
single words, consists of 749 components ; if analyzed on 
the basis of printed lines, it consists of 82 components ; 
if analyzed on the basis of sentences, it consists of 29 
components. If analyzed on the basis of the ideas ex- 
pressed by its various parts, it consists of three compo- 
nents — viz., three passages dealing respectively with 
Elizabeth's character as a woman, her character as a 
ruler, and her popularity with her subjects. These three 
components are called thought-components ; they are the 
components that appear from an analysis on the basis of 
thought. 

The method of determining what are the several 
thought-components of a composition will be shown by 
an analysis of two compositions. Let the reader keep 
clearly in mind what a thought-component is — a pas- 
sage distinct in topic from what precedes and follows. 

Consider the following composition : 



10 



15 



My Scissors 

The little pair of blunt-ended scissors that lies on 
my table I bought at Maey's nine years ago, for — 
Heavens ! has the price stuck in my memory ? — 
twenty-eight cents. I used them first, I remember, 
for clipping from the New York Sun items about the 
Boer War, the daily reports of which I thought would 
make interesting reading at some future time. I care- 
fully deposited my daily African budget in an 
accordion file for about three weeks. Then I re- 
flected, " Oh, what's the use ? If I ever want to 
review these events " (I haven't, by the way), " I can 
find a summary of them through Poole's Index, or a 
detailed history of them in the nearest Carnegie 
Library ; I may as well spare my scissors all this 
friction." So I ceased to clip the Sun. Since that 
time my scissors have served principally for cutting 
the cord on packages sent to me, or for trimming the 
knots of the cord wherewith I fastened packages sent 



THOUGHT-COMPONENTS 209 

to other people. They have mutilated few newspapers Method of 

20 since the abdication of Oom Paul the First. I wonder analyzing 

where the little engine was made. Ah, here is the acomposi- 

answer stamped in the metal : " H. K. Morley & Sons, *^ on ir * t0 

Germany." So you were made in Germany, were tnou S nt ~ 

you ? How do you like America ? How do you like nents°" 
25 lying idle, as you do most of the time, on a green 
cloth in a foreign land ? 

In reading this composition we see that from the be- 
ginning to line 20 the writer is telling about the history of 
the scissors since his purchase of them ; and we see that, 
beginning with the words " I wonder " in line 20, he is dis- 
cussing a new topic, — the place where the scissors were 
made, — and is making remarks suggested by this topic. 
The passage from the beginning to " Paul the First " in 
line 20 is, therefore, a thought-component — i.e., a pas- 
sage distinct in topic from what follows ; and the passage 
from "I wonder" in line 20 to the end is a thought-com- 
ponent — a passage distinct in topic from what precedes. 
These two passages are the main thought-components. 

Within these main thought-components there are sub- 
ordinate ones. The first sentence deals with the purchase 
of the scissors ; this topic is not continued in the second 
sentence; therefore the first sentence is a separate 
thought-component. The second sentence deals with the 
use to which the scissors were first put ; this topic is con- 
tinued to the words " clip the Sun" in line 15, but is not 
continued farther ; therefore the passage from " I used " 
in line 4 to "clip the Sun "• in line 15 is a separate 
thought-component. Proceeding through the composition 
in this way, we get the following analysis : 

I. History of the scissors since their purchase (lines 1-20) 

1. Purchase (lines 1-4) 

2. Early use (lines 4-15) 

3. Later use (lines 15-20) 

II. Place of manufacture (line 20-end) 

1. Ascertainment (lines 20-23) 

2. Remarks suggested by ascertainment (line 23-end) 



210 



PARAGRAPHING 



Method of 
analyzing 
a composi- 
tion into 
thought- 
compo- 
nents 



Consider, second, the following composition, the speech 
made by Abraham Lincoln at the dedication of the Na- 
tional Cemetery at Gettysburg: 

Lincoln's Gettysburg Address 

1 Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought 
forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in 
liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men 
are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great 
5 civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation 
so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We 
are met on a great battle-field of that war. We 
have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a 
final resting-place for those who here gave their lives 

10 that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting 
and proper that we should do this. But in a larger 
sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we 
cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living 
and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far 

15 above our power to add or detract. The world will 
little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but 
it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, 
the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished 
work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly 

20 advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to 
the great task remaining before us ; that from these 
honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause 
for which they gave the last full measure of devotion ; 
that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not 

25 have died in vain, that this nation, under God, shall 
have a new birth of freedom, and that government of 
the people, by the people, and for the people shall 
not perish from the earth. 

Up to the words " It is altogether fitting" in line 10, 
Lincoln is stating the historical connection of the dedica- 
tion of the Gettysburg cemetery ; it is the dedication, he 
says, of a cemetery for soldiers who died defending a nation 
which was consecrated from its birth to a noble principle, 
and which is now threatened with destruction. With the 
words "It is altogether fitting " he begins to deal with a 
new topic ; he is no longer stating the historical connection 



THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE 211 

of the dedication ; he is estimating its worthiness ; this Method of 
topic is continued to the end of the speech. The composi- ^ a ^}^^ 
tion thus has two main thought-components : the first is tion into 
the passage from the beginning to "live" in line 10 ; the C o£, u _ s t- 
second is the remainder of the composition. Within the ponents 
first main component there are no distinct sub-compo- 
nents. Within the second main component, however, 
there are two distinct sub-components. These are suf- 
ficiently indicated by the following analysis : 

I. The dedication in its historical connection (lines 1-10) 
II. Estimate of the worthiness of the dedication (line 10- 
end) 

1. Decorousness of the act (the sentence "It . . . 

this," lines 10-11) 

2. Its unimportance (" But n in line 11-end) 

a. Unimportance in comparison with the deeds of the 

dead soldiers ("But" in line 11; "here" in 
line 17) 

b. Unimportance in comparison with a larger duty 

("It" in line 17-end) 

If it is now clear what the term thought-component 
means, we may proceed to the rules for paragraphing. 

THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE 1 

537. The fundamental principle of paragraphing is Tkefunda- 
this : a passage consisting of the whole of a single ^n*k)le 
thought-component which it is advantageous to present stated 
with particular distinctness should be embodied in a 
separate paragraph. 

For example, if an essay of 400 words on the qualifica- Illustra- 
tions for success as an army officer consists of two thought- 
components, the first dealing with inherent qualities and 
the second with qualities produced by training and study, 
this essay should be written as two paragraphs. If 
an autobiography 600 words long treats these subjects : 

i See Exercises 750-752. 



tions 



212 



PARAGRAPHING 



Para- 
graphing 
compared 
to punc- 
tuation 



Early years on the farm 

Life and education in the city from the sixth to the 

sixteenth year 
Experience as a machinist from the seventeenth to the 

twentieth year 
Resumption of education ; college life to the date of 

writing 

this composition should be written as four paragraphs. 

A criticism, 300 words long, of American newspapers, 

dealing with , . 

° Substance 

Style 

should be written as two paragraphs. In an essay of 
1000 words on the art of trapping, constructed thus : 

I. General principles 
II. Particular methods for certain animals 

1. Bears 

2. Wolves and foxes 

3. Minks 

parts I, II 1, II 2, and II 3 should be embodied each in 
a separate paragraph. An essay of 300 words on the 
manufacture of barrel staves, discussing — 

Providing material 
Process of manufacture 

should consist of two paragraphs. If a story tells — 

(m) How the hero went to the bank and what he did there 
(n) What was happening meanwhile at the hero's factory 

parts m and n should be embodied in two separate para- 
graphs. 

Paragraphing, when employed according to the rule 
stated above, does, in a measure, the same thing for a 
whole composition that punctuation does for a predica- 
tion. In the predication " He went to the drug store to 
get some medicine for his little brother Eob was very 
sick," there are two coordinate clauses. This fact one 
perceives without the assistance of punctuation after mis- 



THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE 



213 



reading the predication and rereading it. If the predi- p a ra- 
cation is properly punctuated, thus : " He went to the f^p^ 
drug store to get some medicine, for his little brother to punctu- 
Rob was very sick," the reader knows immediately, as atlon 
he reads, that it consists of two clauses, the comma 
showing him where the first ends and the second begins. 
Now, read through the following composition, printed 
without paragraphing : 



Military Drill in the University 

I have found, since my corning to the University, 
that a great many of the students are opposed to the 
taking of military drill, believing that it does them 
no good whatever. It seems to me, however, that, 
would they but view the question fairly and thoroughly, 
they would not regard this enforced exercise as worth- 
less to them ; I believe that there could be no doubt in 
the mind of one who had carefully studied the situation 
that military drill is a source of real,benefit to the 
student — even to him who is entirely out of sympathy 
with it. By means of it the ear is trained to serve the 
movements of the body ; the mind is quickened to act 
precisely and alertly, and to govern the movements of 
the feet and hands in grace and ease ; the drooping 
shoulders are straightened ; the shuffling feet are 
raised to tread strongly and manfully in recognition 
of their proper function ; and the soul is taught a great 
lesson, the lesson of submission to just authority. It 
is quite generally conceded that war is abominable, 
and that universal peace is desirable. But the world 
has not yet reached that stage in its development when 
armies are no longer necessary to protect a country's 
rights, when the sword may be beaten into the plow- 
share, and the discordant sounds of war may give place 
to the gentle sounds of universal and everlasting peace. 
As long as this is true, the state has need of strong, 
resolute, well-trained men, on whom reliance may be 
placed in time of need. It is doubtless with this fact 
in view that the government furnishes instruction and 
drill in military tactics in our colleges. The drill does 
produce (at least in great degree) such men, and in so 
doing makes some provision for a possible future crisis 
in the life of our nation. 



ation 



214 PARAGRAPHING 

Para- How many main thought-components are there in this 

compar Jcl essay ? Where does any one of them end and the follow- 
to punctu- ing one begin ? These questions an attentive reader can 
answer by careful analysis. But it would evidently be 
an advantage to indicate to the eye where one thought- 
component ends and the following begins, so that the 
reader may distinguish the several thought-components 
immediately, as he reads. This advantage is furnished by 
embodying each main component in a separate paragraph 

thus : 

I have found, since my coming to the University, 
that a great many of the students are opposed to the 
taking of military drill, believing that it does them no 
good whatever. It seems to me, however, that, would 
they but view the question fairly and thoroughly, 
they would not regard this enforced exercise as worth- 
less to them ; I believe that there could be no doubt 
in the mind of one who had carefully studied the 
situation that military drill is a source of real benefit 
to the student — even to him who is entirely out of 
sympathy with it. By means of it the ear is trained 
to serve the movements of the body ; the mind is 
quickened to act precisely and alertly, and to govern 
the movements of the feet and hands in grace and 
ease ; the drooping shoulders are straightened ; " the 
shuffling feet are raised to tread strongly and man- 
fully in recognition of their proper function ; and the 
soul is taught a great lesson, the lesson of submission 
to just authority. 

It is quite generally conceded that war is abominable, 
and that universal peace is desirable. But the world 
has not yet reached that stage in its development when 
armies are no longer necessary to protect a country's 
rights, when the sword may be beaten into the plow- 
share, and the discordant sounds of war may give 
place to the gentle sounds of universal and everlasting 
peace. As long as this is true, the state has need of 
strong, resolute, well-trained men, on whom reliance 
may be placed in time of need. It is doubtless with this 
fact in view that the government furnishes instruction 
and drill in military tactics in our colleges. The drill 
does produce (at least in great degree) such men, and in 
so doing makes some provision for a possible future 
crisis in the life of our nation. 



THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE 215 

Thus, as punctuation helps the reader by making the 
structure of a predication more easily apparent, so 
paragraphing helps him by making the structure of a 
composition more easily apparent. 

538. From the fundamental principle of paragraphing The two 
as stated in Section 537, it follows that, in order that a ^ nd ^ ons 
composition be well paragraphed, two conditions must be para- 
fulfilled : graphing 

First, every paragraph must embody the whole of a 
single thought-component. 

Second, every paragraph must embody a thought- 
component which it is advantageous to present with 
particular distinctness. 

The nature of these two conditions will now be illus- 
trated; afterwards the two conditions will be restated 
and explained in detail. 

Let us consider what should be the paragraphing of 
an essay on Queen Elizabeth constructed as follows : 

I. Elizabeth as a woman Illustra- 

1. Traits inherited from her father tions 

2. Traits inherited from her mother 
II. Elizabeth as a ruler 

1. Demerits 

a. Duplicity 

b. Short-sighted policy 

2. Merits 

a. Wisdom in choosing agents 

b. Courage 

c. Loyalty to interests of subjects 
III. Affection of her subjects for her 

1. Upper classes 

2. Lower classes 

a. The first condition of good paragraphing — that Various 

every paragraph embody the whole of a single thought- f^Jfiiung 

component — can be fulfilled in various ways in the the first 

writing of this essay. For example, each paragraph of*good 

would embody the whole of a single thought-component P ar a- 
if the essay were divided into three paragraphs, thus ; 



216 



PARAGRAPHING 



Various 
ways of 
fulfilling 
the first 
condition 
of good 
para- 
graphing 



II. Traits inherited from her 
father 
2. Traits inherited from her 
mother 



II. Elizabeth 
as a ruler 



1. Demerits 



2. Merits 



a. Duplicity . 

b. Short-sighted 

policy . . 

a. Wisdom in 

choosing 
agents 

b. Courage. . 

c. Loyalty to 

interests of 
subjects . 



III. Affection [ 1- u PP er classes . 
of subjectsj 2 . Lower classes 



hi 



12 



13 



But each paragraph would embody the whole of a single 
thought-component if the essay were divided into six 
paragraphs, thus : 



I. Elizabeth 
as a woman 



II. Elizabeth 
as a ruler' 



1. Traits inherited from her 

father 

2. Traits inherited from her 

mother 

f a. Duplicity . 
1. Demerits j h . Short-sighted 
I policy . . 

a. Wisdom in 
choosing 
agents . . 
-{ b. Courage . . 

c. Loyalty to 
interests of 
subjects . 



2. Merits 



III. Affection f 1 - Upper classes .... 
of subjects { 2. Lower classes , , , , 



•11 

'12 



14 



[15 
f!6 



THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE 217 

or if it were divided into nine paragraphs, thus : 
II. Traits inherited from her 



II. Elizabeth 
as a ruler' 



Elizabeth as I father 

a woman ] 2 . Traits inherited from her 
mother 

[ a. Duplicity . 

1. Demerits j bt Short-sighted 
I policy . . 

'a. Wisdom in 
choosing 
agents . . 

2. ■ Merits { b. Courage . . 
c. Loyalty to 

interests of 
subjects . 

III. Affection J 1- u PP er classes ..... 
of subjects { 2. Lower classes 



or if it were divided into four paragraphs, thus : 



I. Elizabeth as 
a woman 



II. Elizabeth 
as a ruler 



1.. Traits inherited from her 
father 

2. Traits inherited from her 
mother 

[a. Duplicity . 

1. Demerits bm Short-sighted 

I policy . . 

a. Wisdom in 
choosing 
agents . . 

2. Merits { b. Courage . . 
c. Loyalty to 

interests of 
subjects . 



III. Affection f L Upper classes 
of subjects { 2. Lower classes 



fl 

IT 
}!9 



Various 
ways of 
fulfilling 
the first 
condition 
of good 
para- 
graphing 



11 



i ,! 



►14 



218 



PARAGRAPHING 



Various 
ways of 
fulfilling 
the first 
condition 
of good 
para- 
graphing 



or if it were divided into six paragraphs, thus : 



Methods 
that do not 
fulfill the 
first 
condition 



I. Elizabeth as 
a woman 



1. Traits inherited from her 

father 

2. Traits inherited from her 

mother 



II. Elizabeth 
as a ruler ' 



1. Demerits 



2. Merits 



a. Duplicity . 

b. Short-sighted 

policy . . 

a. Wisdom in 

choosing 
agents . . 

b. Courage . . 

c. Loyalty to 

interests of 
subjects . 



III. Affection f 1 - Upper classes 
of subjects J 2. Lower classes 



1^1 



►12 



Several other methods would comply with the first 
dition. On the other hand, many methods would 
late that condition ; for instance : 



I. Elizabeth as 
a woman 



II. Elizabeth 
as a ruler 



1. Traits inherited from her 

father 

2. Traits inherited from her 

mother 

(a. Duplicity . 

1. Demerits -j & # Short-sighted 

I policy . . 

a. Wisdom in 
choosing 
agents . . 
<j b. Courage . . 

c. Loyalty to 
interests of 
subjects . 

Upper classes 



III. Affection (1. 

ofsub J ects l2. Lower classes 



H 



{14 



►15 



con- 
vio- 



►li 



12 



► 14 



"15 



li. 



THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE 



219 



b. It remains to choose, from among the various plans 
which fulfill the first condition, the one which fulfills the 
second — that is, the one which is most advantageous. 
This choice depends partly on the length of the several 
thought-components, and partly on the writer's purpose. 
Suppose the three main components were of the following 
lengths : 

I. Elizabeth as a woman 
II. Elizabeth as a ruler 
III. Affection of her subjects 



500 words 
600 words 
400 words 



I. -Elizabeth as 
a woman 



II. 



Elizabeth 
as a ruler 



ri. 


Traits inherited from her 


2. 


father . 
Traits inh 




srited from her 


„ 


mother 




[a. Duplicity . 


1. 


Demerits bt Short-sighted 




I policy . . 






a. Wisdom in 
choosing 
agents . . 


2. 


Merits 


b. Courage . . 

c. Loyalty to 

interests of 


> 




subjects . 


1. 


Upper clas 


ses 



III. Affection 

of subjects { 2 . Lower classes 



Fulfill- 
ment of 
the second 
condition 
of good 
para- 
graphing 



In this case it would not be advantageous to embody 
each main component in a single paragraph, for the 
paragraphs would be too long ; the following plan would 
be better : 



H 



12 



14 



15 



But suppose the three main components were of the 
following lengths : 



I. Elizabeth as a woman 
II. Elizabeth as a ruler 
III. Affection of her subjects 



30 words 
70 words 
20 words 



220 



PARAGRAPHING 



Fulfill- In this case it would not be advantageous to embody 
the^econd eacn mam component in a separate paragraph, for the 
condition 



of good 
para- 
graphing 



paragraphs would be too short and scrappy; it would 
be better to write the essay (120 words in all) as a 
single paragraph. Suppose the three main components 
were of the following lengths : 



I. Elizabeth as a woman 
II. Elizabeth as a ruler 
III. Affection of her subjects 



170 words 
200 words 
150 words 



In this case, to embody each main component in a single 
paragraph would probably be the most advantageous 
plan. This conclusion, however, might be modified by 
the writer's purpose. If, for instance, the writer wished 
to distinguish sharply the good from the bad side of 
Elizabeth's character as a ruler, the following plan would 
be better : 
I. Elizabeth as a woman 

.{i 

III. Affection of her subjects 



II. Elizabeth as a ruler 







in 


Demerits . . . 




}f-2 


Merits . . . . 




h 3 


3 ..... . 




|14 



Again, suppose the third main component were 300 words 
long. Whether it should in that case be written as one 
paragraph or as two depends on the writer's purpose. If 
he wished the thought-component dealing with Eliza- 
beth's popularity to make a single comprehensive impres- 
sion, his purpose would be best served by writing the 
whole component in one paragraph. If he wished to give 
particular distinctness to the two aspects of her popularity, 
he had better write the component as two paragraphs. 

THE CANON OF UNITY 

The 539. A paragraph should embody the whole of a single 

Unity 1 ° thought-component. This may be called the Canon of 
stated Paragraph Unity. From it are deduced the following rules : 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



221 



UNITING OF CONSECUTIVE COMPONENTS 



540. A paragraph should not be made to embody two Con sec- 
consecutive thought-components unless both constitute pp 1 ,^^ 111 ' 
a larger component, or unless both make up the whole not form- 
composition. For example : 

BAD Right Also 



Modern Newspapers 

f 1. In substance 
'[2. In English 

II. Proposed remedy . . 



(paragraph 
2 faulty) 



I. Defects \ 





[11 

1 

is 




1 

i 

}l2 

















Right 
(538 b) 

Hi 

K3 



larger 
component 



compo- 
sition 



The Introduction to a Composition 

541. A passage of one or more sentences that serves as Introduc- 
an' introduction to a whole composition consisting of several ^ lol g° a 
paragraphs should be paragraphed separately. If such a 
passage is made part of the first paragraph of the main 
body of the composition, that paragraph will thereby 
violate the Canon of Unity (539), and moreover the pas- 
sage will seem to be an introduction to that paragraph 
only, not to the whole composition. For example, if an 
essay on the care of a motor car is paragraphed thus : 



WRONG 



Introduction : the writer's purpose — merely to 
give some practical hints to beginners 

I. Care of the appearance of the car . . . 



II. Care of the mechanism 



1. General con- 

siderations 

2. Specific direc- 

tions . . 



n 1 



paragraph 1 violates the Canon of Unity, since it con- 
sists of two consecutive thought-components which do 



222 



PARAGRAPHING 



not constitute one larger component. The composition 
should be paragraphed thus : 

Right 



Introduction 






]u 




I. Appearance 






ft 2 




5 " 


II. Mechanism 


1. General considerations . 
, 2. Specific directions . . . 




|T8 




}14 



Conclusion 
to a whole 
composi- 
tion 



The Conclusion to a Composition 

542. A passage of one or more sentences that serves 
as a conclusion to a whole composition consisting of 
several paragraphs should be paragraphed separately. If 
such a passage is made part of the last paragraph of the 
main body of the composition, that paragraph will there- 
by violate the Canon of Unity (539), and moreover the 
passage will seem to be a conclusion to that paragraph 
only, not to the whole composition. For example, if an 
essay on the probable bad effects of recent state legisla- 
tion affecting railway rates is paragraphed thus : 



WRONG 



Introduction: " Recent legislation . . . is likely 
to have three unfortunate consequences." . 

I. First bad effect 

II. Second bad effect 

III. Third bad effect 



Conclusion : " One cannot foretell, of course, 
how many years will elapse before these three 
results of the recent railway legislation will 
work themselves out ; it may be five years, 
or it may be a dozen. But that they will 
sooner or later work themselves out seems, 
in the light of history, practically certain." 



Kb 



n* 



the last paragraph will violate the Canon of Unity. 
essay should be paragraphed thus : 



The 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



223 



Right 





}T1 

\1S 








(f 4 




H 5 



Introduction . . 

I. First effect . 

II. Second effect 

III. Third effect 

Conclusion . . . 



The Introduction to a Long Thought-component 

543. A passage of one or more sentences serving as an Introduc- 
introduction to a whole thought-component consisting of «^J«Q_ a 
more than one paragraph should be paragraphed sepa- nent of 
rately. If such a passage is made part of the first p^a> a 
paragraph of the thought-component, that paragraph will graphs 
thereby violate the Canon of Unity (539), and more- 
over the passage will seem to be an introduction to that 
paragraph only, not to the whole group of paragraphs 
making up the component. If, however, the paragraph- 
ing is changed so that the main body of the thought- 
component occupies a single paragraph, the introductory 
passage may be included in that paragraph. For example, 
if the second component of an essay on Macaulay is 
paragraphed thus : 



WRONG 



I. Macaulay as a 1 1. His popular essays . . 
man of letters [2. His history . . . . 

Introduction : " Macaulay' s 
political achievements, 
though less distinguished 
than his literary achieve- 
ments, are worthy of 
a somewhat detailed 
notice." . . . 

1. His career in Parliament 

2. His career in India . . 

III. His character in private life . . . . 



II. His political 
career 



11 



(12 



224 



PARAGRAPHING 



the first paragraph indicated violates the Canon of Unity. 
The second component of the essay should be paragraphed 
in one of the following ways : 



I. Man of letters <! 



f 1. Essays . 



II. Political 
career 

III. Private life 



[2. History . 

I Introduction . 
1. Parliament 
2. India . . 



Right 



Right 





hi 

























fl 



Conclu- 
sion to a 
component 
of several 
para- 
graphs 



The Conclusion to a Long Thought-component 

544. A passage of one or more sentences that serves 
as a conclusion to a component of more than one paragraph 
should be paragraphed separately. If such a passage is 
made part of the last paragraph of the component, that 
paragraph will thereby violate the Canon of Unity (539), 
and moreover the passage will seem to be a conclusion to 
that paragraph only. If, however, the paragraphing is 
changed so that the main body of the component occupies 
a single paragraph, the concluding passage may properly 
be included in that paragraph. For example, if a com- 
ponent of an essay on a factory is paragraphed thus : 

WRONG 

} 



I. Location and description 



II. Proc- 

esess 



a. First process . . 

b. Second process 

c. Third process . . ' 
Hand Conclusion : ' ' Such 

work I are the three pro- 
cesses of hand work 
... a surprising 
thins: to find in this 
age of machinery." 

2. Machine work 



Ill 

12 



11 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



225 



the third paragraph indicated violates the Canon of Unity. 
The component should be paragraphed in one of the 
following ways : 



Kio-ht 



Risjht 



I. Location and description . . 




iff 






1. Hand< 


a. First . 

b. Second . 

c. Third . 

Conclusion 












I. Proc- 






esses 








2. Machine . . . 







111 



Transition Paragraphs 

545. When a passage of one or more sentences con- Transition 
eluding a component of several paragraphs is followed by 
a passage introducing a component of several paragraphs, 
the two may be combined into one paragraph. For, 
though the two passages may logically be regarded as 
belonging to different components, and so may, if the 
writer wishes, be paragraphed separately, yet the first 
passage may also be regarded as in function auxiliary to 
the second — as an incidental look backward to make 
clearer the direction of farther advance — and so may be 
combined with the second in one paragraph. For 
example, in an essay defending athletics, two paragraphs 
are concluded thus : 

44 The stock arguments for the abolition of school 
and college athletics are thus weak and fallacious." 

and immediately after this sentence, three following para- 
graphs are introduced thus: 

" Against them are to be set the great benefits of 
athletics — benefits physical, mental, and national." 



These two sentences may, according to the effect desired 



226 



PARAGRAPHING 



by the writer (see Section 538 6), be paragraphed either 
thus : 



Invalidity of 
arguments 
against ath- 
letics 



II. 



Benefits of ath- 
letics 



1. Arguments stated . . 

2. Arguments refuted . 

Conclusion: "The stock 
arguments for the ab- 
olition of . . . athletics 
are thus weak and 
fallacious." . . . . 

Introduction: "Against 
them are to be set . . . 
benefits physical, men- 
tal, and national." . . 



Physical benefit 
Mental benefit . 
National benefit 



Right 



hi 

13 



14 
IT 



or thus : 



I. Invalidity of f 1. Arguments stated . . 
arguments [2. Arguments refuted . . 

Introduction : "The stock argu- 
ments . . . are thus weak and 
fallacious. Against them are 
to be set . . . benefits phys- 
ical, mental, and national." 



II. 



Benefits 
of ath- 
letics 



1. Physical benefit 

2. Mental benefit 

3. National benefit 



Right 



}!2 



}14 
}16 



The Partial Uniting of Consecutive Thought-components 

Whole 

component 546. A paragraph should not be made to embody a 

offoUow- wn °l e thought-component and a part of the following 
ing one one. For example : 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



227 



BAD BAD BAD 

Modern Newspapers (f 1 faulty) (f 1 faulty) (1f 2 faulty) 



I. Defects 



1. Substance 



2. English . 



II. Proposed remedy . 







1 




2 




3 









■H 


— -, 













11 



'12 



T3 



Modern Newspapers Right 

f 1. Substance 
I. Defects j 

I 2. English . 



II. Proposed remedy 



Also right 





•11 

■12 










1 









12 



•13 



547. A paragraph should not be made to embody a Part of a 
rt of one thought-componei 
following one. For example : 



part of one thought-component and the whole of the com " t 



BAD 

Modern Newspapers (f 2 faulty) 

f 1. Substance 
I. Defects -I 

I 2. English . 



II. Proposed remedy 



BAD 

(f 3 faulty) 



and whole 
of follow- - 
ing one 





■1.2 






J 







11 



>12 



13 



For the correct paragraphing see under Rule 546. 



228 



PARAGRAPHING 



Part of 548. A paragraph should not be made to embody a 

one com- p art f one thought-component and a part of the fol- 

and part lowing one. For example : 

of follow- BAD 

mgone (W 2 and 3 

Modern Newspapers faulty) 



I. Defects 



1. Substance 



2. English 



II. Proposed remedy 



11 
>!4 



BAD 

(T 2 faulty) 



11 



12 



13 



For the correct paragraphing see under Rule 546. 



Com- 
ponent 
beginning 
within a 
paragraph 
not to be 
broken 



549. A thought-component that begins in the midst 
of a paragraph should be finished in the same paragraph; 
it is an objectionable practice to begin a thought- 
component in the midst of a paragraph and then make a 
new paragraph division in the midst of the component. 



Example A 



For example, consider the following passage ; observe 
the perplexity that is felt when one pauses, as one natu- 
rally does, at the end of the first paragraph : 

1 I shall never recommend to the trustees of the 

University of Chicago the removal of any professor 

on account of his theological opinions. Theological 

Violation conformity may under some circumstances be desir- 

of Rule 549 & able in a denominational college. To require such 

conformity in a university would be intolerable. 

Moreover, the charter of the University of Chicago is 

broadly non-sectarian. It is a charter requirement 

that two thirds of the trustees and the president shall 

10 be Baptists. 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



229 



Bat it is also a charter requirement that no sec- 
tarian test or particular religious profession shall ever 
be held as a condition precedent to the election of any 
professor. Obviously the same principles apply to 

15 the tenure of any professor. Members of the Univer- 
sity faculties are of many religious faiths, a minority 
being Baptists. The trustees and the president are in 
entire accord in regarding the policy of religious free- 
dom as the only one which can be followed by a uni- 

20 versity worthy of the name. The policy will continue 
to be that of the University of Chicago. 1 

In this passage a distinct thought-component begins with 
the word " Moreover" in line 7 and ends with the word 
" professor" in line 15; the break in this component 
made by the paragraph division is an erratic oddity. The 
whole passage might, in conformity with the Canon of 
Unity, be paragraphed as follows : 



Bight 



I. Statement of the writer's determination 



II. 



or thus : 
I. Statement of the writer's determination 





1. A reason applicable to uni- 




versities in general . . . 


Reasons 




for this 


2. Reasons spe- 


a. Charter 


determi- 1 


cially appli- 


provisions 


nation 


. cable to the I 


b. Policy of 




University 


the insti- 




of Chicago 


tution 







lines 1-3 


if 


lines 3-7 






lines 7-15 


► 1 


lines 
15-22 









Right 



II. Reasons 
for this 
determi-' 
nation 



1. A reason applicable to uni- 
versities in general . . . 



2. Reasons spe- 
cially appli- 
cable to the 
University 
of Chicaero 



a. Charter 

provisions 

b. Policy of 

the insti- 
tution 



11 



f 12 



13 



1 An open letter from President Judson of the University of 
Chicago, printed in a Chicago newspaper. The newspaper, not 
President Judson, is responsible for the paragraphing shown 
here. 



230 



PARAGRAPHING 



or thus : 
I. Statement of the writer's determination . 

1. A reason applicable to uni- 
versities in general . . . 

2. Reasons spe- fa. Charter 
cially appli- provisions 
cable to the J b. Policy of 
University the insti- 
of Chicago [ tution . 



Right 



II. Reasons 
for this 
determi-' 
nation 



I 12 

J 

h 4 



Amended 

version 

(cf.p.228) 



But though these plans conform to the Canon of Unity, 
they are not advantageous ; the passage should be printed 
without any paragraph division, thus : 

I shall never recommend to the trustees of the 
University of Chicago the removal of any professor on 
account of his theological opinions. Theological con- 
formity may, under some circumstances, be desirable 
in a denominational college. To require such con- 
formity in a university would be intolerable. More- 
over, the charter of the University of Chicago is 
broadly non-sectarian. It is a charter requirement that 
two thirds of the trustees and the president shall be 
Baptists. But it is also a charter requirement that no 
sectarian test, or particular religious profession, shall 
ever be held as a condition precedent to the election of 
any professor. Obviously the same principles apply 
to the tenure of any professor. Members of the 
University faculties are of many religious faiths, a 
minority being Baptists. The trustees and the presi- 
dent are in entire accord in regarding this policy of 
religious freedom as the only one which can be fol- 
lowed by a university worthy of the name. The 
policy will continue to be that of the University of 
Chicago. 

Example B 

Another instance of the violation of Rule 549 occurs 
in the following passage : 

BAD: 

Violation The beauty of Fra Angelico's character has been 

of Rule 549 the admiration of all who ever studied the life of that 



THE CANON OF UNITY 231 

devout and gentle artist. He might have lived in ease 
and comfort, for his art would have made him rich ; 
instead, he chose the cloister life. Fra Angelico was 
gentle and kindly to all. 

He was never seen to display anger, and if he ad- 
monished his friends, it was with mildness. . . . 

Right : 

The beauty of Fra Angelico' s character has been' Amended 
the admiration of all who ever studied the life of that version 
devout and gentle artist. He might have lived in ease 
and comfort, for his art would have made him rich ; 
instead, he chose the cloister life. Fra Angelico was 
gentle and kindly to all. He was never seen to dis- 
play anger, and if he admonished his friends, it was 
with mildness. . . . 

For other examples see pages 256 and 260. 

THE TOPIC RULE 

550. A passage the material of which does not log- The Topic 
ically fall under one topic should not be embodied in 
one paragraph. 

This rule does not require that a paragraph shall not 
deal with several different topics ; but it requires that if 
a paragraph deals with several topics, these shall all be 
logical divisions of one larger topic. A paragraph that 
deals with 

1. Physical benefits of football 

2. Intellectual benefits of football 

deals with two different topics ; yet it conforms to rule 
because both these topics are embraced by the single topic 
benefits of football. A paragraph dealing with 

1. Intellectual benefits of football 

2. The manufacture of cheese 

violates the rule, not because it deals with two different 
topics, but because those topics cannot logically be 
embraced by a single topic. 

The following paragraphs are examples of the violation 
of the Topic Rule : 



232 



PARAGRAPHING 



Example 
of viola- 
tion of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Example 
of viola- 
tion of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Joseph Demarion will spend a year in the house of 
correction as a result of the postal card habit. When 
he brought his wife and child here six months ago, he 
went to Chicago. [See example B under Rule 552.] 

B 

A person does not attain his full strength before the 
age of twenty. People under that age cannot work in 
a factory without overtaxing their strength. A parent 
who sends a child to work in a factory is exposing him 
to lasting injury. Such a parent does not realize what a 
strain the work exerts on a child, or else he does not 
care. But heavy work is not the only thing that 
injures the health of boys and girls in factories. In 
a factory, where smoke and dust are always floating 
about, the lungs and nerves of a weak child are liable 
to be ruined. For these reasons a child should not be 
allowed to work in a factory until he has acquired 
sufficient strength to endure the labor and to with- 
stand the other dangers to health. In the present age, 
education is necessary to get any sort of good employ- 
ment. A person to-day without a good education is 
like a cripple. [See example A under Rule 552.] 



Example 
of viola- 
tion of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Example 
of viola- 
tion of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



The incubator is a device for hatching eggs by 
artificial heat. It is used by all professional poultry- 
men and by most progressive farmers. The incubator 
is usually set up in a cellar or an incubator house. 
[See example A under Rule 560.] 

D 

It turned out that my watch was born in the Elgin 
factory, on the banks of the Fox River, in Illinois. 
On arriving at the factory it seemed evident that care 
was the first essential in the making of watches, while 
the number of watches produced was a secondary con- 
sideration. Automatic machines do all the* minute 
work that cannot be done by hand. [See example C 
under Rule 560.] 

E 

Ether pervades the whole universe. It extends to 
the remotest of the fixed stars ; it is the material that 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



233 



(550) 



occupies the spaces between the molecules — between Example 
the very particles that constitute our bodies. In the of viola- 
opinion of modern scientists there is no place where it tion of the 
is not found. When we look about in this great uni- T°P\ C Rule 
verse of ours, we come to a realization of the absolute 
insignificance of this planet which we call earth — a 
mere "lukewarm bullet" as Stevenson calls it. And 
the more we study, the more perplexing it all seems. 
The ether is not only thought to be the medium that 
everywhere exists in space, but it is the medium by 
which heat comes to us from the sun. It was soon 
found that light passes through a space entirely devoid 
of air, and this fact soon gave rise to the belief in the 
existence of another medium, which was called ether, 
the vibrations of which constitute light. [See exam- 
ple B under Rule 556.] 



COKRECTION OF VIOLATIONS OF THE TOPIC KULE 

551. The following sections will show various ways in 
which violations of the Topic Eule (550) may be cor- 
rected. But let it be clearly understood in the beginning 
that to avoid such violations is better, and also easier, than 
to correct them. And the way to avoid them is to rid 
oneself of the habit of writing a composition without any 
plan — the habit of stringing statements together in the 
random order in which they happen to occur to one's 
mind. Never begin a composition, or at least never begin 
the final draft, without deciding what its main thought- 
components are to be ; for instance, in writing on The 
Recent Thefts in our Dormitory, decide in the beginning, 
11 First I will state the facts of the case ; second I will 
comment on them. " And never begin a main thought- 
component, or its final draft, without deciding what its 
sub-components are to be ; for example, in writing the 
statement of the facts in the essay supposed, decide in 
the beginning, " First I will speak of the thefts ; then of 
the evidence as to who committed them" ; in writing the 
comment, decide, " I will speak first of the bad effect of 
the thefts, and then of what the authorities ought to do. " 



Correction 
of viola- 
tions of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



How to 

avoid vio- 
lations 



234 



PARAGRAPHING 



Then decide which of the components may best be em- 
bodied in separate paragraphs ; for example, decide on 
one of the following plans (see Section 5386) : 



Right 



Right 



Right Right 



I. Facts 



II. Com- 
ment 



Correction 
of viola- 
tions of 
the Topic 
Rale by 
change of 
para- 
graphing 



1. Thefts 

2. Thief 

1. Effects 

2. Duty of 

author- 
ities 





'11 

► 12 




„ 

}12 

1 

[l3 
J 




hi 

}12 

,13 





n 1 

h 2 
1 

h!4 



Then write the number of paragraphs determined upon, 
and in writing each one, stick to the subject determined 
upon. This procedure insures the unity of each para- 
graph, and it also usually insures a good structure in the 
whole composition. (For other examples see Rules 562, 
572, 583.) 

Change of Paragraphing 

552. In a well-constructed composition, a violation of 
the Topic Rule (550) can be corrected merely by changing 
a paragraph division to a different place or by canceling a 
paragraph division. 

Example A 

For example, consider the following passage, of which 
the first paragraph violates the Topic Rule : 

A person does not attain his full strength before the 
age of twenty. People under that age cannot work in 
a factory without overtaxing their strength. A parent 
who sends a child to work in a factory is exposing 
him to lasting injury. Such a parent does not realize 
what a strain the work exerts on a child, or else he 
does not care. But heavy work is not the only thing 
that injures the health of boys and girls in factories. 
In a factory, where smoke and dust are always float- 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



235 



ing about, the lungs and nerves of a weak child are 
liable to be ruined. For these reasons a child should 
not be allowed to work in a factory until he has ac- 
quired sufficient strength to endure the labor and to 
withstand the other dangers to health. In the present 
age education is necessary to get any sort of good 
employment. A person to-day without a good educa- 
tion is like a cripple. 

Such persons can get no employment except as mere 
drudges. How can a child receive a good education if 
he is barred from school by having to go to work in a 
factory at an early age ? Child labor not only menaces 
the health of the child, but makes his whole future 
practically hopeless. 

The violation of the Topic Rule in this passage can be 
corrected by changing the paragraphing thus : 

A person does not attain his full strength before the 
age of twenty. People under that age cannot work in 
a factory without overtaxing their strength. A parent 
Who sends a child to work in a factory is exposing 
him to lasting injury. Such a parent does not realize 
what a strain the work exerts on a child, or else he 
does not care. But heavy work is not the only thing 
that injures the health of boys and girls in factories. 
In a factory, where smoke and dust are always float- 
ing about, the lungs and nerves of a weak child are 
liable to be ruined. For these reasons a child should 
not be allowed to work in a factory until he has ac- 
quired sufficient strength to endure the labor and to 
withstand the other dangers to health. 

In the present age education is necessary to get any 
sort of good employment. A person to-day without a 
good education is like a cripple. Such persons can 
get no employment except as mere drudges. How can 
a child receive a good education if he is barred from 
school by having to go to work in a factory at an early 
age ? Child labor not only menaces the health of the 
child, but makes his wmole future practically hopeless. 



Violation 
of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Amended 
version 



Unity 
secured 
by change 
of para- 
graphing 



Example B 



Again, consider the following composition, in which 
the first paragraph violates the Topic Rule : 



236 PARAGRAPHING 

Violation Milwaukee, Wis., May 4. — (Special) — Joseph 

of the Demarion will spend a year in the house of correction 

Topic Rule as a result of the postal card habit. When he brought 

(55Q) n i s w if e an d child here six months ago from New 

York, he went to Chicago. 

Then he sent souvenir postal cards showing him- 
self engaged in various criminal proceedings such as 
robbing jewelry stores and picking pockets to his 
wife. 

The habit grew on him and he sent his aged mother 
a card on which he was photographed peering out 
from behind prison bars and wearing on his breast a 
placard, "Joliet, 3892." The elder Mrs. Demarion 
was alarmed and sent the card to her daughter-in-law. 
Joseph explained that it was taken by a Clark Street 
photographer as a joke. 

The court could not see the joke, especially when 
the young wife told of her husband's alleged cruel- 
ties. 

The violation of the Topic Eule can be corrected in this 
case by changing the paragraphing thus : 

Amended Joseph Demarion will spend a year in the house of 

version correction as a result of the postal card habit. When 

he brought his wife and child here six months ago 
from New York, he went to Chicago. Then he sent 
to his wife souvenir postal cards showing himself en- 
gaged in various criminal proceedings, such as robbing 
Change jewelry stores and picking pockets. The habit grew 

of para- on n j m aTH -]_ ne sen ^ n | s aged mother a card on which 

graphing ne wag photographed peering out from behind prison 

bars and wearing on his breast a placard, "Joliet, 
3892." The elder Mrs. Demarion was alarmed and 
sent the card to her daughter-in-law. Joseph ex- 
plained that it was taken by a Clark Street photog- 
rapher as a joke. The court could not see the joke, 
especially when the young wife told of his alleged 
cruelties. 

Example C 

Another instance of a violation of the Topic Kule 
corrected by the canceling of a paragraph division is 
given in Example A under Rule 549. 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



237 



Change of Composition-structure 

553. In a composition the structure of which is de- 
fective, a violation of the Topic Rule (550) cannot 
usually be corrected by simply changing the paragraph- 
ing. For to change the place of a paragraph division 
so that the faulty paragraph, or the first part of it, is 
added to the preceding paragraph, will make the preced- 
ing paragraph violate the Topic. Rule ; to join the faulty 
paragraph, or the last part of it, to the following para- 
graph, will make this paragraph violate the rule ; and to 
break the faulty paragraph into new paragraphs corre- 
sponding to the different topics it discusses will produce 
scrappy and scanty paragraphs. When this is the case, 
— when a violation of the Topic Rule cannot be cor- 
rected by changes in paragraphing without violating the 
rules of paragraphing in some other way, — some change 
in the structure of the composition is required. Among the 
methods of procedure the following may be mentioned : 



Correction 
of viola- 
tions of 
the Topic 
Rule by 
change of 
composi- 
tion- 
structure 



Cancellation of Irrelevant Parts 

554. A paragraph that violates the Topic Rule (550) Cancella- 
may be analyzed into its thought-components, and of Relevant 
these such as are found to be irrelevant to the main sub- parts 
ject may be omitted. 

For example, consider the following paragraph : 



.. f During the past semester I have had considerable 
\ trouble with some of my studies in college. I now see 

2 j where many high schools are extremely weak. As a 
\ rule, high schools pay little attention to detail. I have 
f found my English work particularly hard; I have 

3 1 great difficulty in writing themes free from errors — 
( especially grammatical errors. In all courses given 

4 fin the university, much attention is paid to detail. 
\ While our work may be very good in some respects, 



Violation 
of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



238 PAKAGRAPHING 



r yet in detail it is very faulty. We must try hard to 
make our work perfect in detail. By mastering the 
minutiae of a study, we learn how to put that study 
to practical use. We may not realize this fact fully 
at the present time ; but after we have finished our 
course and come to make practical use of what we 
have learned, we shall find that minute thoroughness, 
which we hold lightly now, is of very great value, 
'When in high school, I did not expect to attend col- 
lege ; I therefore did only sufficient work to gain my 
high school diploma. This was the cause of my 
troubles. Had I expected to go to college, and had I 
known the requirements of college work, I should 
have done my work more thoroughly. The great les- 
son I have learned from my difficulties is to apply 
myself to my work. In other words, I have learned 
to study, and to study hard. 



6< 



The topics respectively treated in the seven passages 
marked off above are these : 

1. The occurrence of difficulties in my college work 

2. Superficiality of the work of high schools in general 

3. Difficulties in my English work 

4. Failure of students in general to meet the college 

requirement of thoroughness 

5. Value of thoroughness 

6. Cause of my difficulties — poor preparation 

7. The lesson learned from my difficulties 

Of these topics, Nos. 1, 3, 6, and 7 are embraced by one 
general topic — difficulties in my college voork ; tabu- 
lating them as below, we see that this general topic 
logically includes them all : 

Difficulties in My College Work 

The occurrence of difficulties in my college work 

Difficulties in my English work 

Cause of difficulties 

Lesson learned from difficulties 

Difficulties in my college ivoi% then, seems to be the 
main topic of the paragraph. To this general topic 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



239 



subtopics 2, 4, and 5 are irrelevant ■ if we tabulate 
them thus : 

Superficiality of the work of high schools in general 
Failure of students in general to meet the college re- 
quirement of thoroughness 
Value of thoroughness 

we see that to sum them up under the subject diffi- 
culties in my college icork would be absurd. The 
violation of the Topic Rule in the paragraph may be 
corrected by omitting the three thought-components 
corresponding to these three topics, thus : 

During the past semester I have had considerable Amended 

trouble with some of my studies in college. I have version 

found my English work particularly hard ; I have ( cf • P- 237 ) 
great difficulty in writing themes free from errors — 
- especially grammatical errors. When in high school 
I did not expect to attend college ; I therefore did 

only sufficient work to gain my high school diploma. Unity 

This was the cause of my troubles. Had I expected secured by 

to go to college, and had I known the requirements omission 

of college work, I should have done my work more of irrele- 

thoroughly. The great lesson I have learned from my vaut 

difficulties is to apply myself to my w T ork. In other P arts 
words, I have learned to study, and to study hard. 



555. It is a common error to conclude the final para- Irrelevant 
graph of an essay with a short passage belonging neither ^final ° 
under the main subject of that paragraph, nor under the paragraph 
subject of any other paragraph of the essay. This fault 
is illustrated by the following paragraph, the last para- 
graph of an essay entitled Sources of Slang : 

The third class of slang expressions of which I wish Violation 
to speak consists of good English words used in senses of the 
that apparently have no connection with the proper Topic Rule 
senses. An example is u cheese it. 1 ' Some one has v. 00 ") 
conjectured that this expression may have originated, 
under the early Norman kings in England, from the 
French cesser (to cease). Another expression of this 



240 



PARAGRAPHING 



Irrelevant 
ending 



sort is u cut your stick," which Professor Johnson 
says is derived from the Celtic expression ciiit as 
teach (leave the house). " You're a brick," " graft," 
" crank," "twig" in the sense of understand, "cove" 
in the sense of boy or man, and " copper" for police- 
man are other examples. Why some of these expres- 
sions have the slang meanings referred to is a matter 
of conjecture in some cases, and in others will prob- 
ably always remain in obscurity. Although slang 
has been criticised the world over, there are times 
when it is the only way of expressing the meaning you 
want. 



The violation of unity in this case, and in most similar 
cases, should be corrected by canceling the irrelevant 
sentence or sentences that conclude the paragraph. 



Making 
irrelevant 
parts 
relevant 



Making Irrelevant Parts Relevant 

556. A paragraph that violates the Topic Kule (550) 
may be analyzed into its thought-components, and of 
these such as are irrelevant to the main subject may be 
modified and rearranged so that they are made relevant 
— so that the main topic is kept before the reader's mind 
throughout the paragraph. 



Example A 



For example, consider again this faulty paragraph : 

Violation -. f During the past semester I have had considerable 

of the \ trouble with some of my studies in college. I now 

Topic Rule r see where many high schools are extremely weak. 

( 55 0) (Asa rule, high schools pay little attention to detail. 

( I have found my English work particularly hard ; I 
3-] have had great difficulty in writing themes free from 

( errors — especially grammatical errors. In all courses 

( given in the university much attention is paid to de- 
4< tail. While our work may be very good in some 

( respects, yet in detail it is very faulty. We must try 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



241 



'hard to make our work perfect in detail, in order to 
succeed in college. By mastering the minutiae of a 
study, we learn to put that study to practical use. 

, We may not realize this fact fully at the present 

^ time ; but when we have finished our course and come 

to make practical use of what we have learned, we 

shall find that minute thoroughness, which we hold 

w lightly now, is of very great value. When in high 

"school, I did not expect to attend college ; I therefore 
did only sufficient work to gain my . high school 
diploma. This was the cause of my troubles. Had 
I expected to go to college and had I known the 
requirements of college work, I should have done 
my high school work more thoroughly. The great 

r lesson I have learned from my difficulties is to apply 
7 -j myself to my work. In other words, I have learned 

(to study, and to study hard. 

In this paragraph, as was remarked above (see page 238), 
passages 2, 4, and 5 are irrelevant. They might there- 
fore be simply omitted (see page 239). But they may 
also be altered so that each one can properly be desig- 
nated by a topic that belongs to the general topic of the 
paragraph — difficulties in my college work. Thus, 
while passage 2, on superficiality of the work of high 
schools in general, violates unity, the following passage, 
on the cause of my difficulties : superficiality of my 
own high school icork, does not : 

The cause of my difficulties was the fact that my high 
school training was extremely defective. My high 
school instructors were very negligent in regard to 
the details of the students' work. 



While passage 4, on failure of students in general to . irrelevant 
meet the college requirement of thoroughness, violates P^ s , 
unity, the following passage, on my failure to meet the vant 
college requirement of thoroughness, does not : 

In all courses given in the university much attention 
is paid to detail. While my work has been very good 
in some respects, yet in detail it has been very faulty. 



242 PARAGRAPHING 

While passage 5, on the value of thoroughness , violates 
unity, the same passage altered as follows, does not : 

My difficulties have taught me that / must try hard to 
make my work perfect in detail in order to succeed 
in my college work. They have also brought to my 
attention and impressed upon me a fact which we 
students are inclined not to realize at the present 
time, but which we shall realize after we have finished 
our course, and come to make practical use of what 
we have learned : the fact that only by mastering the 
minutiae of a study can one learn how to put that 
study to the best practical use. 

This passage does not violate unity, because its topic is 
not simply the value of thoroughness, but lessons learned 
from my work : the value of thoroughness. If passages 
2, 4, and 5 are altered in the way just shown, the table 
of topics dealt with in the paragraph will be this : 

1. The occurrence of difficulties in my work 

2. The cause : my poor high school preparation 

3. A specimen of the difficulties : my English work 

4. Nature of difficulties : my work defective in detail 

5. Lessons learned from my difficulties 

6. Cause of my difficulties : poor high school work 

7. Lesson learned from my difficulties 

Of these topics, Nos. 1, 3, and 4 belong to one topic (the 
occurrence of certain difficulties, as distinguished from 
the cause of them and the result of them) and should 
therefore be grouped together. Furthermore, Nos. 1 and 
4 together constitute the statement of the occurrence of 
those difficulties, and No. 3 is an example of the state- 
ment ; Nos. 1 and 4 should therefore be grouped together. 
Obviously Nos. 2 and 6 should be grouped together, and 
likewise Nos. 5 and 7. In Nos. 5 and 7, however, three 
lessons are spoken of — 

(a) Necessity of thoroughness in college 

(&) Value of thoroughness after completion of college 

course 
(c) Art of mastering studies in college 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



243 



Of these, a and c both concern college work, and should 
therefore not be separated by b, which concerns work 
done after the completion of the college course. To sum 
up, the material in the paragraph should be rearranged 
according to this plan : 

I. Occurrence of certain difficulties 

1. Statement 

2. Example 

II. Cause : poor high school training 
III. Lessons learned 

1. Thoroughness in college work 

2. Art of mastering studies 

3. Value of thoroughness after graduation 

Rewriting the paragraph according to this plan, and 
making a few more changes of phraseology in order to 
fit the parts into their new connections, we have the 
following : 

During the past semester I have had considerable 
trouble with some of my studies in college. In all 
courses given in the University, much attention is paid 
to detail. While my work has been very good in some 
respects, yet in detail it has been very faulty. I have 
found my English work particularly hard : I have 
great difficulty in writing themes free from errors — 
especially grammatical errors. The cause of my 
difficulties was the fact that my high school training 
was extremely defective. In the first place, my high 
school instructors were very negligent in regard to 
the details of the students' work. In the second 
place, when I was in high school, I did not expect to 
attend college ; I therefore did only sufficient work to 
gain my high school diploma. Had I expected to go 
to college, and had I known the requirements of 
college work, I should have done my high school work 
more thoroughly, and so should have escaped many of 
the difficulties I have mentioned. My difficulties have 
taught me that I must try to perfect my work in de- 
tail, in order to succeed in my college course. They 
have taught me to apply myself to my work. In other 
words, I have learned to study, and study hard. They 
have also brought to my attention and have impressed 



Amended 
version 
(cf . p. 240) 



Unity 
secured by 
modifying 
and re- 
arranging 
irrelevant 
parts 



244 



PARAGRAPHING 



upon me a fact which we students are inclined not to 
realize at the present time, but which we shall realize 
after we have finished our course, and come to make 
practical use of what we have learned : the fact that 
only by mastering the mi?iutice of a study can one 
learn how to put that study to the best practical use. 



Amended 
version 
(cf. p. 232) 



Unity 

secured by 
modifying 
and re- 
arranging 
irrelevant 



parts 



Making 
relevant 
by subor- 
dination 



Example B 

The same method of correcting a paragraph that lacks 
unity may be applied to the paragraph on the ether, 
quoted on page 232. The main topic of that paragraph 
is the presence of ether everywhere throughout the uni- 
verse. Altering and rearranging passages apparently 
irrelevant to this topic, and making them subservient to 
it, so that the universal presence of ether is kept in 
mind throughout the paragraph, we have the following : 

From the theory that light is the vibration of the 
medium called ether, follows the conclusion that 
wherever light can penetrate, there is ether. There- 
fore ether not only fills the space between the earth 
and the sun, but extends to the remotest of the fixed 
stars ; the whole marvelous, incomprehensible uni- 
verse of stars and planets — of which this planet we 
call earth, this mere " luke-warm bullet" as Stevenson 
calls it, forms so insignificant a part — is pervaded by 
ether. And moreover, since light penetrates not 
only air and spaces devoid of air, but solid substance 
as well, -— glass, for example, — ether occupies the 
space between the molecules of at least some solid 
substances. It is present even between the particles 
that constitute our bodies, as is proved by the phe- 
nomena of X-rays. Indeed, in the opinion of some 
modern scientists, there is in the whole universe no 
place and no substance which is not permeated by 
ether. 

557. A short part that is irrelevant to the main body 
of a paragraph may be changed from the grammatical 
form of independent assertion to the form of a subordi- 
nate clause or of some other subordinate element, and 
attached to one of the sentences belonging to the main 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



245 



body ; thus the short part will become, instead of distinct 
from the main body, subservient or incidental to some 
part of the main body, and so will not violate unity. 
For example, consider the following paragraph : 

The vaudeville theater has its place in the list of 
useful institutions, and it is often condemned more 
than it really deserves. It does good in several ways. 
It is a boon to the poor ; to them it is a means of recrea- 
tion, amusement, and even instruction, of which they 
would be deprived if the only theaters were those that 
are more expensive. It keeps many young men and 
boys from places where gambling and drinking are 
practiced, which might exert a bad influence upon 
them. Vaudeville has some bad effects. Its evil effects 
are chiefly exerted upon children. Children who go to 
vaudeville shows are thereby induced to acquire an 
aversion not only toward school but also toward other 
work. The vaudeville serves well as a little amuse- 
ment for students who study a large amount of their 
time, and who wish to see something different from 
their books for the purpose of having a change. 

The main subject of this paragraph is the benefits of 
vaudeville theaters. To this subject the passage " Vaude- 
ville has . . . other work," italicized in the foregoing 
copy, is irrelevant. This violation of unity may be cor- 
rected by changing the grammatical form of the irrele- 
vant passage and making the passage, in its altered 
form, dependent on the second sentence, thus : 



Violation 
of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Irrelevant 
part 



Amended 
version 



The vaudeville theater has its place in the list of use- 
ful institutions, and it is often condemned more than 
it really deserves. Although it has some bad effects, 
— upon children, for instance, in whom it breeds a 
dislike for school work and other work, — yet it does Unity 
good in several ways. It is a boon to the poor ; to secured by 
them it is a means of recreation, amusement, and subordi- 
even instruction, of which they would be deprived if n ation 
the only theaters were those that are more expensive. 
It keeps many young men and boys from places where 
gambling and drinking are practiced, which might 
exert a bad influence upon them. It serves well as 
a little amusement for students who study a large 



246 



PARAGRAPHING 



Making 
relevant 
by an 
addition 



amount of their time, and who wish to see something 
different from their books for the purpose of having 
a change. 

558. An addition may be made to a paragraph con- 
taining a passage apparently irrelevant to the main sub- 
ject, so that a connection between the passage and the 
main subject is established. 



Violation 
of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Amended 
version 



Unity 
secured by 
an 
addition 



Example A 
For example, consider the following paragraph : 

The majority of us despise the melodrama, as a mat- 
ter of course. It seems to us to occupy the same place 
in the world of drama that the old-fashioned camp 
meeting occupies in the world of religion. Conse- 
quently we are indifferent to it, and care to know no 
more of it than we infer from its lurid billboards. 
Now, among my friends I am proud to number a 
psedo-psychologist. His favorite manner of passing a 
vacation is to attend as many camp meetings as the 
time allows. He says camp meetings, though not 
very refined, are at least interesting phenomena from 
which one may learn a variety of things. 

This paragraph discusses — 

1. Our contemptuous indifference to melodrama. 

2. A psedo-psychologist who enjoys camp meetings. 

The second topic is irrelevant to the first. The violation 
of unity may be corrected by making an addition to the 
paragraph so that a connection between the second com- 
ponent and the first is established, thus : 

The majority of us despise the melodrama, as a 
matter of course. It seems to us to occupy the same 
place in the world of drama that the old-fashioned 
camp meeting occupies in the world of religion. Con- 
sequently we are indifferent to it, and care to know 
no more of it than we infer from its lurid billboards. 
Now, among my friends, I am proud to number a 
psedo-psychologist. His favorite manner of passing 
a vacation is to attend as many camp meetings as the 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



247 



time allows. He says camp meetings, though not 
very refined, are at least interesting phenomena from 
which one roar learn a variety of things. Such an 
observation, it seems to me, applies equally well to the 
popular melodrama. 

The paragraph altered in this way may be analyzed thus : 

Main subject : our indifference to melodrama 
I. Statement of our indifference 

II. Comment on it : indifference a mistake ; melo- 
drama worthy of interest and observation 

The addition made to the paragraph changes the bearing 
of the second component, so that that component can 
properly be designated by a topic that belongs to the 
main subject of the paragraph. 



Example B 

Consider the following paragraph : 

My ambition is to become a useful citizen and a Violation 
prosperous business man. With this purpose in mind of the 
I have entered upon the study of electrical engineer- Topic Rule 
ing. The electrical engineer is the man of the hour. ( 55 °) 
There are no steam cars in New York City any 
longer. Electricity is gradually becoming the chief 
motive power all over the world. 

The violation of unity here may be corrected by an addi- 
tion to the paragraph, thus : 



My ambition is to become a useful citizen and a 
prosperous business man. With this purpose in mind 
I have entered upon the study of electrical engineer- 
ing. The electrical engineer is the man of the hour. 
There are no steam cars in New York City any longer. 
Electricity is gradually becoming the chief motive 
power all over the world. To become an electrical 
engineer, then, and to rise high in the profession 
seems to me the best means of realizing my ambition. 



Amended 
version 



Unity 
secured by 
an 
addition 



248 



PARAGRAPHING 



Transpo- 
sition of 
irrelevant 
parts 



Violation 
of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Transposition of Irrelevant Parts 

559. A paragraph that violates tlie Topic Rule (550) 
may be analyzed into its thought-components, and some 
of these may be transposed to another part of the com- 
position. 560. In transposing a passage from oue part 
of a composition to another, one should change the form 
so as to make the passage fit into its new connection ; one 
should not transpose a passage bodily, but transpose its 
substance. Observe how this is done in the following 
examples. 

Example A 

Consider the following passage, in which the first 
paragraph violates the Topic Rule: 

The Management of an Incubator 

The incubator is a mechanical device for hatching 
eggs by artificial heat. It is used by all professional 
poultrymen and by most progressive farmers. The 
incubator is usually set up in a cellar or an incu- 
bator house. 

Most incubators are shipped from the factory in a 
partially knocked-down condition. When a machine 
reaches its destination, it is uncrated and carried to 
the place where it is to be set up. Then the lamp- 
holder and the legs are screwed into position, and the 
machine is set upright. The regulator is taken out of 
the egg chamber and placed in position over the ther- 
mostat. A thermometer is hung in the center of the 
egg chamber, so that the temperature can be kept 
constant. . . . 

The painful want of unity in the first paragraph above 
quoted is at once felt by almost any reader. Examina- 
tion shows where the violation of unity lies : the first two 
sentences are purely introductory, not dealing with the 
management of an incubator, but speaking generally of 
its nature and the extent of its use ; with this material 
is grouped the third sentence, a detached scrap of infor- 
mation about the management of an incubator. The 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



249 



second paragraph, on the other hand, is a unit ; it deals 
with one topic — the setting up of the machine. The 
violation of unity in the first paragraph is corrected by 
taking the third sentence out of the paragraph and put- 
ting it where its topic indicates that it should go. The 
topic of the sentence is the place ivhere the machine is 
set up ; the topic of the second paragraph is the setting 
up of the machine ; therefore the sentence belongs in 
the second paragraph. Where should the sentence be 
placed in that paragraph ? Examination of the paragraph 
shows that the sentence belongs after "set up" in the 
fourth line. Transposing it to that place (transposing its 
substance, observe ; see Rule 560), we have the following : 

The incubator is a mechanical device for hatching 
eggs by artificial heat. It is used by all professional 
poultrymen and by most progressive farmers. 

Most incubators are shipped from the factory in a 
partially knocked-down condition. When a machine 
reaches its destination, it is uncrated and carried to 
the place where it is to be set up — usually a cellar 
or an incubator house. Then the lamp-holder and 
the legs are screwed into position, and the machine is 
set upright. The regulator is taken out of the egg 
chamber and placed in position over the thermostat. 
A thermometer is hung in the center of the egg 
chamber, so that the temperature can be kept constant. 

In the foregoing version, though the violation of the rule 
of unity in the first paragraph of the original is corrected, 
the paragraph is still objectionable ; it is scanty and 
scrappy. See further Rule 577. 



Amended 
version 
(cf . p. 248) 

Unity 
secured by- 
trans- 
position 



Example B 
For another example, consider the following essay : 

The Care of Rabbits 

1 Kabbits are very common and popular pets among 
the boys. They are easily handled and kept. While 



250 



PARAGRAPHING 



Violation 
of the 
Topic Rule 
(550) 



Violation 
of the 
Topic 
Rule 



10 



20 



naturally herbivorous, rabbits will eat a great variety 
of food. 

Pens for rabbits should be constructed in dry, sunny 
situations, and should have good drainage. The walls 
of the pens should be strongly constructed so that they 
will not only prevent the escape of the rabbits, but 
also protect them against the attacks of dogs from the 
outside. To keep the rabbits from burrowing out, the 
walls must be carried down deep into the earth, or 
else the floor of the yards must be covered with 
chicken wire. Rabbits are fond of burrowing, and it 
is therefore generally considered beneficial to have a 

15 floor of dry earth. If the pens are kept well littered 
with straw, the animals seldom dig much, but if they 
once get access to the earth they will burrow rapidly. 
A yard sixteen by twenty feet will accommodate 
twenty rabbits or even more. A portion of the yard 
should be covered in some way to afford shade. 

In connection with the yard, a house five by eight 
feet should be constructed ; it should be well venti- 
lated and lighted,, with the window so arranged that 
it can be darkened. The entrance from the yard to 

25 the house should consist of about two lengths of five- 
inch tile, with one joint bending downward into the 
yard and one bending upward into the house. Rab- 
bits seem to enjoy running through a passage of this 
kind. It is also useful in preventing the entrance of 
cats, which will seldom crawl through such a tunnel. 
If dogs gain entrance to a yard, they will usually 
dig at the end of the tile rather than attempt to dig 
under the wall. Straw can be used for litter in the 
house, but it should be removed frequently and burned. 
Rabbits can be fed on clover or alfalfa hay, oats, 
apples, cabbages, and other material of this character. 
The pens should be cleaned frequently, and should be 
disinfected with a solution of carbolic acid every 
month or six weeks, to prevent diseases and to destroy 

40 parasites which may form about the pen. 



30 



35 



The first paragraph of this essay deals with — 

1. The popularity of rabbits as pets 

2. The diet of rabbits 

Its second component may be transposed (see Rule 560) 
to the first part of the last paragraph, where the feeding 
of rabbits is discussed. The third paragraph deals mainly 



THE CANON OF UNITY 251 

with the construction and arrangement of the house ; the 
statement " it should be removed frequently and burned " 
(line 34) does not belong to this topic, but to the sanita- 
tion of the house, discussed in the last part of the fourth 
paragraph ; this statement may therefore be transposed 
to the last paragraph. Making the two transpositions 
just mentioned, we have the following : 

The Care of Rabbits 

Rabbits are very common and popular pets among Amended 
the boys. They are easily handled and kept. version 

Pens for rabbits should be constructed in dry, sunny (cf . p. 249) 
situations, and should have good drainage. The walls 
of the pens should be strongly constructed, so that 
they will not only prevent the escape of the rabbits 
but also protect them against the attacks of dogs from 
the outside. To keep the rabbits from burrowing out, 
the walls must be carried down deep into the earth, 
or else the floor of the yards must be covered with 
chicken wire. Rabbits are fond of burrowing, and it 
is therefore generally considered beneficial to have a 
floor of dry earth. If the pens are kept well littered 
with straw, the animals seldom dig much, but if they 
once get access to the earth, they will burrow rapidly. 
A yard sixteen by twenty feet will accommodate 
twenty rabbits, or even more. A portion of the yard 
should be covered in some way, to afford shade. 

In connection wdth the yard, a house about five by 
eight feet should be constructed ; it should be well 
ventilated and lighted, with the windows so arranged 
that it can be darkened. The entrance from the yard 
to the house should consist of about two lengths of 
five-inch tile, with one joint bending downward into 
the yard and one bending upward into the house. 
Rabbits seem to enjoy running through a passage of 
this kind. It is also useful in preventing the entrance 
of cats, which will seldom crawl through such a tun- 
nel. If dogs gain entrance to the yard, they will 
usually dig at the end of the tile rather than attempt 
to dig under the wall. Straw can be used for litter in 
the house. 

lliough rabbits will eat a great variety of food, yet 
they are naturally herbivorous ; it is therefore best to 
feed them clover or alfalfa hay, oats, apples, cabbages, 



252 PARAGRAPHING 

Unity and other materials of this character. If straw is used 

secured by for litter, this should be frequently removed and 

trans- burned. The pens should be cleaned frequently, and 

position should be disinfected with a solution of carbolic acid 

every month or six weeks, to prevent disease and to 
destroy parasites which may form in the pen. 

In the foregoing version, though the first paragraph has 
unity, it is still objectionable because scanty and scrappy. 
See further Kule 577. 

Example C 
Again, consider the following passage : 

The Story of My Watch 

I had carried my watch with me from year to year, 
in countries where the sun forgot to disappear at 
night, in countries also where the sun stepped out of 
skies of brass into a sea of gold and where cool winds 
5 seemed never to blow. Everywhere and always the 
watch kept steadily at its task of marking off the 
minutes and hours of my life ; and though I was for 
a long time not particularly grateful for that service, 
still it occurred to me one day that of all the servants 
10 that had worked for me, none had been so undevi- 
atingly true as this modest little watch. So I cast 
about me for a becoming tribute to pay to my busy 
companion, and bethought myself happily of a pil- 
grimage to the place of its birth. 
Violation 15 It turned out that my ivatch was bom in the Elgin 

of the factory, on the banks of the FoxBiver, in Illinois. On 

Topic Rule arriving at the factory it was evident that care was 

(550) the first essential in the making of watches, while the 

number of watches produced was a secondary consid- 
20 eration. Automatic machines do all the minute work 
that cannot be done by hand. 

It had always seemed to me that the great number 
of small parts of which a watch is composed, and the 
need for their perfect proportioning and adjustment, 
25 made a watch one of the most marvelous achieve- 
ments in the realm of mechanical arts. But I could 
never have realized, had I not seen, how fairy-delicate 
were the cogs, the pinions, the studs, the springs, and 
wheels ; I could have had no idea of the skillful 
30 welding and amalgamation of metals, of the severe 
tempering required to arm the little chronometer 



THE CANON OF UNITY 253 

against influences likely to produce expansion and 
contraction ; I could have had no conception of the 
strength and resistance of these apparently fragile 

35 parts, had I not watched the processes in the Elgin fac- 
tory. The operatives who sit year after year, each at 
his particular task, acquire sensitiveness of touch that 
to the inexperienced observer appears magical. And 
where the work is too fine for even such hands as 

40 theirs to do, marvelous automatic machines take up 
the task, threading screws of infinitesimal size ; set- 
ting up the jewel-bearings of diamond, ruby, sapphire, 
or garnet ; and creating the hairsprings fine as a 
spider's web. 

45 But I wish to give you, not merely my general im- 
pressions of the Elgin factory, but a consecutive ac- 
count, based on wmat I saw there, of how my watch 
came into existence. . . . 

In the second paragraph of this passage there are three dis- 
tinct and unrelated components, dealing severally with — 

. 1. The location of the "birthplace" of the watch 
2. The writer's impression of the care exercised in 

making watches 
8. Use of automatic machines 

The first of these may be transposed to the preceding 
paragraph, since that paragraph mentions the "birth- 
place." The second may be transposed to the following 
paragraph, since that paragraph deals with general im- 
pressions of the work in the factory. The third should 
be omitted, since it is identical in substance with the 
statement, " And where the work is too fine " etc. in 
lines 38-41. Omitting it accordingly and transposing the 
first and the second components, we have the following : 

The Stohy of My Watch 

I had carried my watch with me from year to year, Amended 
in countries where the sun forgot to disappear at version 
night, in countries also where the sun stepped out of ( c ^ • P- 2 ^2) 
skies of brass into a sea of gold and where cool winds 
seemed never to blow. Everywhere and always the 
watch kept steadily at its task of marking off the 
minutes and hours of my life : and though I was for 



254 



PARAGRAPHING 



Violation 
of unity 
corrected 
by trans- 
position 



Trans- 
position 



Irrelevant 
ending 
of first 
paragraph 



a long time not particularly grateful for that service, 
still it occurred to me one day that of all the servants 
that had worked for me, none had been so undeviat- 
ingly true as this modest little watch. So I cast 
about me for a becoming tribute to pay to my busy 
companion, and bethought myself happily of a pil- 
grimage to the place of its birth, the Elgin factory, on 
the batiks of the Fox Biver in Illinois. 

It had always seemed to me that the great number 
of small parts of which a watch is composed, and the 
need for their perfect proportioning and adjustment, 
made a watch one of the most marvelous achievements 
in the realm of mechanical arts. But I could never 
have realized, had I not seen, how fairy-delicate were 
the cogs, the pinions, the studs, the springs, and 
wheels ; I could have had no idea of the skillful weld- 
ing and amalgamatian of metals, of the severe tem- 
pering required to arm the little chronometer against 
influences likely to produce expansion and contrac- 
tion ; I could have had no conception of the strength 
and resistance of these apparently fragile parts, had I 
not watched the processes in the Elgin factory. The 
operatives who sit year after year, each at his particu- 
lar task, acquire sensitiveness of touch that to the 
inexperienced observer appears magical. And where 
the work is too fine for even such hands as theirs to 
do, marvelous automatic machines take up the task, 
threading screws of infinitesimal size ; setting up the 
jewel-bearings of diamond, ruby, sapphire, or garnet; 
and creating the hairsprings fine as a spider's web. 
And in all these marvelous processes it was evident 
that care was the first essential in the making of 
watches, while the number of watches produced was 
a secondary consideration. 

But I wish to give you, not merely my general 
impressions of the Elgin factory, but a consecutive 
account, based on what I saw there, of how my watch 
came into existence. . . . 

561. It is a common fault to place in the first para- 
graph of an essay, along with matter purely introductory, 
a short passage belonging to some part of the main body 
of the essay. Such a violation of the Topic Rule may 
usually be corrected by transposing the short passage to 
its proper place in the body of the essay. See, for ex- 
ample, illustrations A and B under Rule 560. 



THE CANON OF UNITY 255 

Reconstruction 

562. In case a composition contains a number of Entire re- 
violations of the Topic Rule, these faults complicated ^ n struc " 
with faults in the structure of the composition, it is necessary 
profitless to try to correct the bad paragraphing by any 
of the methods above explained. In such a case the . Method of 
only thing to do is to make a fresh start and recon- Auction 
struct the composition entirely. The best way to do this 
is as follows : First, draw up an outline for the new 
composition. For this outline some suggestions can 
always be obtained from the old composition. Second, 
decide what components of the new composition should, 
according to the fundamental principle of paragraphing 
(see Sections 537, 538), be embodied in separate para- 
graphs. Third, write the new composition according to 
the outline and the scheme of paragraphing determined 
upon. In the writing of the composition, some parts of 
the old composition may be used, their phraseology being 
altered in order that they may fit into their new connec- 
tions ; but such of the original material as has no con- 
nection with the new outline should be discarded; and 
usually some new material must be supplied. 

Example A 

For example, consider the following apparently hope- 
less hodgepodge of bad paragraphs and bad composition- 
structure : 

A Defense of Athletics 

The athletics of to-day are subject to a good deal of An essay 
harsh and unnecessary criticism. Athletics have al- with man- 
ways been and always will be a part of one's educa- if °ld 
tion. The athlete has existed since the beginning of defects 
5 thew T orld. Stories of the ancient athletic contests seem 
to impress upon the mind how the ancient people 
celebrated the occasions on which athletic feasts were See Topic 
carried on. The Greeks even w 7 ent so far as to kill all Rule (550) 
the weak and puny children born to them, and on 



256 PARAGRAPHING 

10 this account we have the great race of Greeks of 
the fifth century b.c. At the present time there exists 
a class of people who are trying there best to extermi- 
nate athletics in all our schools and colleges. The 
question arises, why do these people object to ath- 
15 letics ? They offer numerous excuses. Some say that 
athletics take up too much time ; others say that too 
many are injured ; and others say that too much 
money is wasted. The people by whom these objec- 
tions are made are people who are sickly or who do 
20 not care to exert themselves more than is required in 
every day life. They are people with more money 
than brains. 

Athletic exercise, if not taken in undue quantities, 
is valuable to the mind and muscle. If the body can 
25 stand the strain, nothing is more refreshing than to 
indulge in athletic sport of some kind. The body and 
its numerous parts require exercise that cannot be 
gained without the aid of athletics. One cannot 
expect to be strong and healthy if he stay indoors all 
30 the time and never takes exercise of any kind. If 
this be the case, the body will degenerate, and some 
disease will set in. The cause of most accidents in 
athletics is not the fault of the game but of the per- 
sons percipitating in the game. One cannot expect to 
See Topic 35 play a hard game of football if he has had no previous 
Rule (550) preparation for the ordeal. 

Athletics are of more value than harm to the body. 
They are the basis of every country's wealth, for they 
make the men, and strong men make a strong country. 
40 Look at the present condition of Spain, once a fore- 
most and first-rank country, now ranked among the 
third class. And why ? Simply because the inhabit- 
ants of Spain are lazy and object to work and have at 
last begun to degenerate and be ranked not as a first- 
45 rate power but among the lowest of the third. 
See Topic The United States is built up of a class of hard- 

R ule working athletic men, who take pride in the fact that 

athletics form a part of man's every day work. Sta- 
tistics show that the greater per cent of sickness is 
50 due to the want of exercise of the different parts of 
the body. If athletics did more harm than good, the 
greatest physicians of the country would not prescribe 
them for weak and deceased persons. Athletics not 
only develop the muscles but also the mind. 
See Rule 55 Every one will agree that a change of occupation 

549 benefits the mind. If a man engaged in business after 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



257 



60 



his work is over will engage in athletic work, thereby See Topic 

taking his mind off his business cares, his troubles will Rule 
seem trifles. If athletics are of more value than harm 
to the human mind and body, then why not put the 

shoulder to the wheel and try and preserve athletics See Rule 

in all our schools and colleges ? 542 



To make a good composition of this looks like an im- 
possibility ; and so it would be if one tried to do it by 
making changes at the places where it is faulty. But 
something can be accomplished by total reconstruction, 
thus : First, we draw up an outline for a new compo- 
sition, for which we get suggestions from the original : 

I. Invalidity of the opposition to athletics 

1. Character of the opponents, and their argu- 
ments. [See lines 11-22.] 

2. Answer to the arguments. [See lines 32-36.] 
II. The benefits of athletics 

Introduction 

1. Physical benefit. [See lines 23-32, 37, 48-53.] 

2. Mental benefit. [See lines 53-59.] 

3. National benefit. [See lines 5-11, 38-48.] 
III. Summary 

Next, we decide on this plan of paragraphing : 



rl. The opponents and 
I. Invalidity of J their arguments 




i« 


the opposition j 2. Answer to the argu- 
[ ments 




jl2 




Introduction 

1. Physical benefit . . 

2. Mental benefit . . . 
.3. National benefit . . 




}«[3 


II. Benefits of 




}14 


athletics . . 




}^[5 






}16 


III. Summary . . 






}1T 



Then we rewrite the essay according to the foregoing out- 
line and scheme of paragraphing, looking through the 
original essay, as we write each component, for material 
that may be incorporated in that component. In writing 
the first paragraph, we see that we can use the material 
in lines 11-22 of the original, thus : 



258 PARAGRAPHING 

Recon- There is at the present time a class of people who 

structed are trying to abolish athletics in all our schools and 

version colleges. They are people who are themselves physi- 

(cf. p. 255) cally sluggish and averse to manly sports, and who 

are thus instinctively prejudiced against athletics. 

The objections they specify are that school and college 

athletics consume too much time and too much money, 

and cause numerous injuries to the students. 

In the composition of paragraph 2, the material in lines 
32-36 of the original version may be used in answer 
to the objection regarding injuries ; but since the original 
version makes no answer to the objection regarding the 
waste of time and money, such an answer must be newly 
composed for the new version. Paragraph 2 may then 
be written as follows : 

In answer to the objection that athletics consume 
too much time and too much money, it may be said 
that even if the statement is true, it does not furnish 
a reason for abolishing athletics. The fact that stu- 
dents were immoderate in athletics would not prove 
that athletics were wholly harmful ; and until it is 
proved that they are wholly harmful, there is no justi- 
fication for exterminating them. As to the argument 
that injuries are suffered in athletic games, it should 
be remembered that the cause of most accidents in 
such games is insufficient training for hard physical 
ordeals. One cannot expect to play a violent game 
of football without injury if one has not had careful 
preparation for it. Injuries suffered by a compara- 
tively small number of men as a result of their own 
imprudence should not be made the ground for de- 
priving a much greater number of men of the sports 
which greatly benefit them. Accidents in athletics 
call for greater care on the part of the athletes, not 
for the abolition of athletics. 

Paragraph 3 must be newly composed : 

See Rule The stock arguments for the abolition of school 

545 and college athletics are thus weak and fallacious. 

Against them are to be set the great benefits of ath- 
letics — benefits physical, mental, and national. 

Then we write paragraphs 4, 5, and 6 thus : 



THE CANON OF UNITY 259 

Athletic exercise is necessary to physical health. 
• . . [And so on. The material of lines 23-32, 37, 
48-53 of the original version may be used in this para- 
graph, the phraseology being altered as the new con- 
text requires.] 

Athletics not only develop the muscles and promote 
the health, but benefit the mind. . . . [And so on. The 
substance of lines 53-59 of the original version may 
be used in this paragraph ; but more material must be 
added to give the paragraph the right proportion.'] 

Athletics are a means of promoting the power of a 
nation, for they make strong, energetic men, and 
such men make a strong nation. ,Look at the present 
condition of Spain. . . . [And so on, the material 
of lines 40-45 being incorporated here.] On the 
other hand, look at ancient Greece. History tells us 
of .the extraordinary love of athletic exercises that 
prevailed among the Greeks ; it also tells us that the 
period of their highest devotion to athletics was the 
period of their highest national power. [Observe that 
the material of lines 5-11 is here transposed to a 
place where it has some connection with the context.] 
The greatness of England and the United States is 
largely accounted for by the devotion of English and 
American men to athletic sports. It has been said 
that the British victories on European and Asian 
battle fields were in reality won on the cricket fields 
of England. As truly might it be said that the mili- 
tary and commercial conquests of the United States 
began on the football fields, the baseball diamonds, 
the running tracks, and the rowing courses of Ameri- 
can schools and colleges. 

Paragraph 7, the summary, should sum up the whole 
essay. Lines 59-62 of the original version, it will be 
observed, sum up only a part of it. The following is a 
complete summary : 

Since, then, the arguments commonly made for the See Rule 
abolition of school and college athletics are utterly 542 
inconclusive, and since athletic games practiced with 
moderation and prudence are physically and men- 
tally advantageous to the men who engage in them 
and are a factor in the power and greatness of the 
nation, it follows that school and college athletics 
should not be abolished, but should rather be, with 
proper regulation, encouraged and extended. 



260 



PARAGRAPHING 



Example B 

The same method of reconstruction may be applied to 
the following extremely bad essay : 



An essay 
containing 
manifold 
defects 

See Topic 
Rule (550) 



See Rule 
549 



See Rule 
549 



The Care of a Motor Car 

When a motor car is new it should receive particular 
care. Of course a man is inclined to keep his car 
spotless on account of its being a new one. This is 
particularly true if it is his first motor car. The body 
5 of the car should be washed once a day, because the 
varnish may not be entirely dry. Dust allowed to re- 
main on the body will scratch it. There is one great 
mistake made by many people in the care of a new 
car: they spend too much time on the outside of the 

10 car and too little on its mechanism. 

Many people who are just learning how to operate 
a car forget that it has many delicate parts which need 
a great amount of oil, and more oil when it is new 
than they will need after a month's use. They do not 

15 think of these parts until it is too late. Every motor 
car company sends with each car a book of instruc- 
tions. In the first place, the book says, the care of the 
car must be left to the judgment of the owner, who 
should study the construction of the car. The method 

20 of caring for an automobile may be summed up in two 
rules : i ' Lubricate " and " Adjust." It is readily un- 
derstood that where one part moves upon another, 
there is always friction, and these parts must be oiled 
frequently. Great care is also necessary to see that 

25 all nuts and bolts are kept properly tightened. Most 
of the parts subject to wear are provided with adjust- 
ments for taking up such wear, and these adjustments 
should be inspected occasionally and should receive 
attention whenever they need it. It would fatigue the 

30 reader to go into detail regarding the care of a motor 
car, but I may say that the great majority of " auto- 
mobile troubles" are the result of negligence, while 
reasonable care will insure satisfactory service. The 
common sources of trouble are these : inadequate 

35 lubrication, imperfect vibrator-action, imperfect ad- 
justment, dirty gasoline, and lack of water. Inadequate 
lubrication is by far the most detrimental, for it may 
ruin all the wearing surfaces of the machinery. 

Of course, after a month's use of the machine, the 

40 lubrication may be lessened. On long tours the engine 



THE CANON OF UNITY 



261 



needs great attention. Just before the beginning of 
such a tour the motor should be examined, and all de- 
fective parts should be replaced. The care of the tires 
is important. Every tire should be repaired, or if it 
45 is in very bad condition, should be replaced by a new 
one. About twice as much oil should be used on long 
tours as is ordinarily used. Again, you see, the lubri- 
cation is an important point. 

First we make an outline : 

Introduction : Purpose of the essay [See lines 29-31]. 

I. Care of the appearance of a car [See lines 1-7]. 
II. Care of the mechanism 

1. General considerations 

a. Carefulness in general [See lines 7-10, 31- 

83]. 

b. Knowing one's own car [See lines 15-19]. 

2. Particular directions 

a. Clean gasoline [See line 30]. 

b. Water supply [See line 36]. 

c. Vibrator action [See line 35]. 

d. Nuts and bolts. [See lines 24, 25]. 

e. Adjustments [See lines 26-29]. 

/. Lubrication [See lines 11-14, 21-24, 34-40, 
46-48]. 



Next we determine on a plan of paragraphing : 



Introduction 



I. Care of the appearance 



1. General 
consid- 
erations 



II. Care of the 
mechan- 
ism 



' a. Carefulness in 
general . . 

b. Knowing one's 
own car . 



Then 



a. Clean gasoline 
&. Water supply 

c. Vibrator . . 

d. Nuts and bolts 

e. Adjustments . 
/. Lubrication . 

ite the essay thus : 



Partic- 
ular di- 
rections 



hi 

13 



•14 



262 



PARAGRAPHING 



The Care of a Motor Car 



Recon- 
structed 
version 
(cf. p. 260) 

See Rule 
541 



It is not my purpose to fatigue the reader by an ex- 
haustive treatment of the care of motor cars, but only 
to speak briefly of some points which are especially 
important for a beginner in motoring to know. I shall 
speak only of gasoline cars, and shall offer some 
advice, first, as to the care of their appearance, and 
second, as to the care of their mechanism. 

A man is naturally inclined to keep a new motor car 
spotless, especially if it is the first one he has owned. 
But even with such an inclination on the part of the 
owner, the appearance of a new car may be injured by 
dust remaining on it too long. Often the varnish on 
a new car is not entirely dry when it comes from the 
factory, and dust allowed to remain on the body of the 
car will scratch it. For this reason the body of a new 
machine should be washed once a day. 

Many people who are just learning how to operate a 
motor car disregard the fact that it has many delicate 
parts, which require constant attention. The great 
majority of "automobile troubles" are the result of 
negligence, while reasonable care will insure satis- 
factory service. But in order to be able to give a car 
reasonable care, a man must understand the mechan- 
ism of his particular kind of car. Every motor- 
manufacturer sends with each car a book of instruc- 
tions. It is the first duty of a purchaser to study the 
book and get well acquainted with his machine. 

There are, however, a few particular rules which 
are valuable to every person who is learning to manage 
a gasoline motor, of whatever kind it may be. First, 
see that your gasoline is clean. \_A sentence should be 
inserted here telling definitely the consequences of dirty 
gasoline.~\ Second, remember your water supply. 
[The consequence of lack of water should be 
specified here.~\ Third, take particular care of your 
vibrator. [Details should be specified.] Fourth, look 
out for loose bolts and nuts ; examine the car for these 
frequently, and especially before beginning a long 
tour. Fifth, keep your adjustments regulated. Most 
parts of a car that are subject to wear are provided 
with adjustments for taking up such wear ; these 
adjustments should be constantly inspected and kept 
regulated. Sixth, and most important of all, lubricate. 
By far the most detrimental error that the owner of a 
motor car can commit is to neglect the lubrication of 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



263 



his machine or to lubricate it inadequately ; for 
through lack of oil all the wearing surfaces of the 
machinery may be ruined. All parts that move upon 
one another should be oiled frequently. The beginner 
should know that a car requires much more oil when 
it is new than after a month's use. A new car should 
be oiled . . . [Specific directions should be given 
here.'] After a month's use, the lubrication may be 
lessened. But at every period of its use a car re- 
quires twice as much oil when it is making a long 
tour as it requires when driven about town. 



PARAGRAPHING FOR EMPHASIS 

563. The rule that a paragraph should embody the Para- 

wlwle of a single thought-component may sometimes be K r aphing 

suspended for the sake of emphasizing a part of a emphasis 
thought-component. For example : 

Indefinite narrative should not be entirely avoided; 
it is useful, and for some purposes is preferable to 
concrete narrative. Parts of a story that are not of 
dramatic interest, speeches that are of no interest or 
importance, — these may properly be conveyed by 
indefinite rather than by concrete narrative. But 
remember this : 

Actions occurring at important points of a story 
should be related by concrete, not indefinite narrative. 

Likewise, the last paragraph of the essay on the care of 
a motor car, on page 262, might, for the sake of empha- 
sizing what is said about lubrication, be broken by a new 
paragraph division before the words " Sixth, and most 
important." • 



THE CANCXN" OF ADVANTAGE 

564. Every paragraph should embody a thought- The Canon 
component which it is advantageous to present with °jLf£~ 



particular distinctness. 
Advantage, 



This is the Canon of Paragraph 



264 



PARAGRAPHING 



PARAGRAPH DIVISIONS TOO INFREQUENT 

Unbroken 565. It is fatiguing to read an extended composition 
fatisuino- or P assa g e m ^ ne tex ^ °f which there are no breaks to 

rest the eye. Hence the Canon of Advantage involves 

the following rules : 



Entire 
neglect of 
para- 
graphing 

Para- 
graphs 
too long 



566. A composition more than 400 words long should 
not be written without any paragraph divisions. 

567. A thought-component more than 400 words 
long should not usually be written as a single paragraph, 
but should be divided into two or three paragraphs of 
convenient length (i.e., not longer than 200 words), 
these of course corresponding with the sub-components. 
For example, an essay on Lincoln presenting — 



I. A narrative of his life 
II. An estimate of his greatness 



500 words 
100 words 



should not be written as two paragraphs ; its first main 
component should be divided into two or three paragraphs 
corresponding to the sub-components — for example, thus: 



I. Narrative of his j 1- Events up to 1860 . 
hfe 1 2. Career as President 



II. Estimate of his greatness 



J1T2 
}T3 



Much- 
broken 
text an- 
noying 



PARAGRAPH DIVISIONS TOO FREQUENT 

568. On the other hand, reading an unbroken passage 
not more than 200 words long is not fatiguing ; and 
over-frequent paragraphing annoys as much as lack of 
paragraphing fatigues. Hence the Canon of Advantage 
involves the following rules : 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



265 



569. A composition no longer than 150 words should Short com- 

usually be written without any paragraph division. For ££f pan£- 

example : graphed 
The Qualifications of an Army Officer 



To be in the highest sense successful as an army 
officer, and to gain in the fullest degree the confidence 
and devotion of the men over whom he has command, 
a man should be strong and firm in will, but should at 
the same time be so just as to preclude all possibility 
of insistence on obedience to unjust commands or 
persistence in mistake. Proficiency in the art of lead- 
ing men must be, of course, in some degree acquired ; 
yet there must be in the very nature of him who 
would command his fellows that which spells leader- 
ship. Acquired characteristics, thought perhaps of 
minor importance, because they may be acquired, are 
yet necessary in an efficient officer. He must learn 
accurately and completely the various technicalities 
necessary to the performance of his duty. He must 
be educated to perceive quickly, and to act sanely and 
wisely in accordance with that perception. In order 
to have the respect of his men, he must preserve a 
dignified bearing while on duty, and, for that matter, 
at all other times ; the ability to do this without af- 
fectation must be in great degree acquired. 

For other examples see pages 208, 210, 230, 236. 

570. Several consecutive short sub-components, all 
forming a thought-component not longer than 200 words, 
should not be written each in a separate paragraph ; all 
should be combined into one paragraph. If they are all 
paragraphed separately, the paragraphing gives the reader 
no visible indication of the identity of the longer com- 
ponent. The identity of the longer component, rather 
than the individuality of its parts, should usually be 
shown by the paragraphing. 

Thus in an essay on a steel factory describing — 



(a) The process of sheet-rolling 

(b) The process of rail-rolling 

(c) The process of casting 



Essay 
properly 
written 
without 
para- 
graphing 



Improper 
separation 
of minute 
parts 



Grouping 
better 
than 
separation 



266 



PARAGRAPHING 



part b should not be written as follows : 

Improper Steel ingots six feet long and six inches square were 

separation heated to a white heat in a large oven, 

of minute When sufficiently hot, an ingot was removed and 

P arts taken on an endless chain to the first set of rollers. 

These rollers were eighteen inches in diameter. 
When the ingot had been passed through them, it was 
a bar of steel ten feet long and five inches thick. 

Then the bar of steel was put on another endless 
chain and taken to a second pair of rollers. 

This process was continued, the bar being passed 
successively through five or six pairs of rollers. 

It came from the last pair a red-hot rail of standard 
size. 

It was next bent slightly so that the base was convex. 
This was to allow for unequal contraction in cooling. 
The rail was now left to cool. 

When cold, it was taken to the cold rollers and 
rolled perfectly straight. 

Part b should be written as follows : 

Amended Steel ingots six feet long and six inches square were 

version heated to a white heat in a large oven. When suffi- 

ciently hot, an ingot was removed and taken on an 
endless chain to the first set of rollers. These rollers 
were eighteen inches in diameter. When the ingot 
had been passed through them, it was a bar of steel ten 
feet long and five inches thick. Then the bar of steel 
was put on another endless chain and taken to a 
second pair of rollers. This process was continued, 
the bar being passed successively through five or six 
pairs of rollers. It came from the last pair a red-hot 
rail of standard size. It was next bent slightly so 
that the base was convex. This was to allow for 
unequal contraction in cooling. The rail was now 
left to cool. When cold, it was taken to the cold 
rollers and rolled perfectly straight. 



Scanty 
and 

scrappy 
para- 
graphs 



THE RULE OF PARAGRAPH ADEQUACY 

571. A scanty and scrappy paragraph should not be 
allowed to stand. This rule does not mean that a com- 
position should contain no brief paragraphs, for a para- 
graph may be brief without being scanty and scrappy. 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



267 



The paragraphs beginning with the words " Recent legis- 
lation " and " One cannot foretell " on page 222, the one 
beginning " Macaulay's political achievements " on page 
223, the one beginning " Such are the three processes " 
on page 224, the one beginning " The stock arguments" 
on page 226, the one beginning " Since, then "on page 259, 
the one beginning " It is not my purpose " on page 262, 
the one beginning "Actions occurring" on page 263, and 
the various paragraphs of direct quotation on pages 291— 
295, — all these paragraphs are brief; but they are 
adequate to their particular purposes ; they give the reader 
no feeling of meagerness and deficiency. But such a 
feeling is given by the italicized paragraphs below : 



Inter-class Athletics 

There is a well-established system of inter-class 
athletics in Muskegon College. There are class base- 
ball teams, class crews, class track teams, class basket- 
ball teams, and freshman and sophomore football 
teams. 

The inter-class baseball teams play almost every 
afternoon in spring. 

In the latter part of May comes the inter-class 
regatta. At the close of the football season the fresh- 
men and the sophomores play their annual champion- 
ship football game. 

In both the fall and the spring come the inter-class 
track meets. 

During the winter the classes play a series of bas- 
ket-ball games. That these inter-class contests are 
beneficial to the students — not only those who take 
part in them, but those who only look on and cheer 
— cannot be denied. They afford exercise and sport 
for men who cannot or do not wish to participate 
in intercollegiate athletics. They also develop new 
material for Varsity teams. They bring students into 
contact and fellowship and form new friendships. 
They promote a spirit of comradeship, which makes 
college life more enjoyable and also more beneficial. 
[See Example A under Rule 573.] 



Scanty 
and 

scrappy 
para- 
graphs 



268 



PARAGRAPHING 



Scanty 
and 

scrappy 
para- 
graphs 



B 

Pleasures of Winter 

About the greatest pleasure which winter brings us 
is skating. What brings us more pleasure than to 
hear the noise made by our skates as we glide swiftly 
along ? Skating is moreover very healthful. It helps 
a great deal in the development of the lungs and the 
muscles. 

In skating every muscle of the body is brought into 
use — particularly the muscles of the legs and the 
back. 

Another pleasure of winter is sleigh riding. Though 
not so beneficial as skating, it nevertheless is a great 
help to the lungs. Tlie fresh air seems to put new life 
into the body. 



Scanty 
para- 
graph 
(cf. p. 251) 



Scanty 
and 

scrappy 
para- 
graphs 



10 



15 



20 



The Care of Rabbits 

Babbits are very common and popular pets among 
the boys. They are easily handled and kept. [See 
Rule 577.] 

D 

Autobiography of Norris Dodd Pinkerton 

I was born in Bridgewater, Iowa, in the year 1888. 

My early education ivas received from my parents 
who taught me my A B Cs and how to add, subtract, 
and multiply. I started to school at the age of seven. 

On the first day I went to school, I was very timid. 
The teacher spoke very pleasantly to me, but I thought 
she was making fun of me, so I went home. After 
being in the first grade for one year I was promoted 
into the second. 

In the autumn of 1902 I entered high school. I was 
very timid at first, but I rapidly made friends and 
soon became one of the best-known members of my 
class. At the end of the first school year I was 
promoted to the sophomore class. The standings I 
received in my sophomore year were the highest I 
obtained in my whole course. During the summer 
following my sophomore year, I did no work, but 
spent my time in fishing and boating. My junior 
year was a year of very hard work because of the 
large amount of laboratory work I had to do. Also, 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



269 



in this year I had to study plane geometry, and try 
as I might, I could never make head or tail of that 
subject ; in the final examination, however, I got 77. 
During the following summer I worked as time-keeper 
25 for a gang of Greeks laying a railroad. 

At length the time came when I ivas to graduate. 
The class presented the farce, Charley's Aunt, and 
I played the part of the aunt. 

During my high school course I was a member of 
30 the literary society and also of the debating society. 

In my sophomore year, I and eleven of my friends 

formed a club called the H. D. The members were all 

sophomores, and these members, when they graduated, 

selected twelve members of the sophomore class to sicc- 

35 ceed them. 

An annual banquet is held by the H. D. on Decem- 
ber 30. This banquet is to be an annual affair. 

At this banquet all the old members of the club are 
brought together to tell stories of their high school 
40 days. It is the intention of the club to make this an 
annual gathering for years to come. 

During my high school course I was always inter- 
ested in athletics. As I was playing a game of foot- 
ball one night with a crowd of boys, I fell in a scrim- 
45 mage and arose with a broken collar bone. That was 
the last game of football I played for some time. 

Baseball is another game in which I am interested. 

In summer I like to go swimming and boating, and 
I am an enthusiastic fisherman. 
50 When I ivas young, many were the hours I spent on 
Johnson's Creek, boating and fishing in summer, and 
fishing through the ice in winter. 

Now I am a student in Minnehaha College, where 
I expect to receive the degree of A.B. four years from 
55 now. [See Rule 583.] 



Scanty 
and 

.scrappy 
para- 
graphs 



E 



Some Landladies I have Known 



I recall a landlady in Oshkosh with whom I once 
had to deal. When I arrived at her house to inquire 
for lodgings, I found her most hospitable ; she held 
out many inducements to me to engage a room under 
her roof. Beguiled by her fair promises, I and the 
friend who accompanied me established ourselves 
joyfully in Mrs. Yokum's two-pair-front. 



270 



PARAGRAPHING 



Scanty 
and 

scrappy 
paragraph 



The promises Mrs. Yokum made on our first day 
she performed for two days. On the third day she 
prohibited certain acts which she had at first declared 
would be freely permitted. Taken by surprise, and 
not knowing immediately what to do, we submitted ; 
but our grievance rankled. A second grievance soon 
followed : the meals, which had been very satisfactory, 
dwindled lamentably on the fourth day. We might 
submit to the loss of certain privileges as lodgers, but 
we refused to starve. We gave notice that unless a 
reformation took place at once in the commissariat, 
we would leave. This protest was effectual. From 
that day to the day of our departure, her table was as 
bountiful as an abbey refectory — almost. 

Another landlady I have in mind, who would be very 
gracious and affable ivhen any one engaged a room, 
but thereafter would be most disagreeably peevish 
whenever she saw the lodger. There was no reason 
for this ; all that we lodgers could say was that she 
was odd. [See Example A under Rule 576, Example 
B under Rule 579, and Example A under Rule 580.] 



Elimination of Scanty and Scrappy Paragraphs 



Elimina- 
tion of 
scanty 
'and 
scrappy 
para- 
graphs 

How to 

avoid 
them 



572. In the following sections are stated some modes 
of procedure that are useful in the revision of a composi- 
tion containing scanty and scrappy paragraphs. But let 
it be understood in the beginning that it is better to 
avoid writing such paragraphs than to eliminate them. 
They are usually the result of writing a composition 
without a plan. If a writer, in composing an essay, 
decides in advance what its structure is to be and what 
components may best be paragraphed separately, and then 
writes the number of paragraphs determined upon, stick- 
ing to the subject determined upon for each one, and see- 
ing that no paragraph is conspicuously disproportioned to 
paragraphs coordinate with it — if a writer does this, he 
will have no scanty and scrappy paragraphs to eliminate. 
In writing an essay on Lincoln, one should first decide 
what its components are to be — for example, 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



271 



I. Early childhood 
II. Education 

III. Life on the Mississippi 

IV. Political career 

1. In Illinois politics 

2. In national politics 

a. Before 1800 

b. Presidency 

Then one should decide what the paragraphing is to 
be — for example, 



I. Early childhood 




111 


II. Educatioi 


i 




ft' 




III. Life on the Mississippi 




jt« 




1. In Illinois politics .... 

(a. Before 

2. In national J 1860 . . 

politics [ 6 Presidency 




^ 


IV. Political 
career 




h 






(1« 



Having decided on this plan of structure and paragraph- 
ing, the writer should write the number of paragraphs 
determined on, taking care that coordinate paragraphs — 
that is to say, paragraphs 1, 2, and 3 and paragraphs 5 
and 6 — are justly proportioned to each other. This does 
not mean that he should try to make paragraphs 1, 2, 
and 3 of the same length, or to make paragraphs 5 and 
6 of the same length. It would be absurd to lay down 
the rule that coordinate paragraphs should be of approxi- 
mately the same length. But it is a sound rule that a 
paragraph should not consist of one or two scrappy sen- 
tences when paragraphs coordinate with it consist of 
several hundred words. 



Change of Paragraphing 

573. In a well-constructed composition a scanty and 
scrappy paragraph can be eliminated by merely changing 



272 



PARAGRAPHING 



Elimina- 
tion of 
scrappy- 
para- 
graphs by- 
change of 
para- 
graphing 



the paragraphing — by adding the faulty paragraph to 
the preceding or the following one. 

Example A 

Thus, consider the essay entitled Inter-class Athletics 
on page 267. Analyzing that essay into its thought- 
components, we see that it — 



Amended 
version 
(cf . p. 267) 



States what inter-class contests are held 
Points out the value of these contests 



Scrappy 
para- 
graphs 
eliminated 
by change 
of para- 
graphing 



The scanty and scrappy paragraphs in the essay as printed 
above may be eliminated by embodying each thought- 
component in one paragraph thus : 

Inter-class Athletics 

There is a well-established sysiem of inter-class 
athletics in Muskegon College. There are class base- 
ball teams, class crews, class track teams, class basket- 
ball teams, and freshman and sophomore football 
teams. The inter-class baseball teams play almost 
every afternoon in spring. In the latter part of May 
comes the inter-class regatta. At the close of the 
football season the freshmen and the sophomores play 
their annual championship football game. In both 
the fall and the spring come the inter-class track 
meets. During the winter the classes play a series of 
basket-ball games. 

That these inter-class contests are beneficial to the 
students — not only those who take part in them, but 
those who only look on and cheer — cannot be denied. 
They afford exercise and sport for men who cannot 
or do not wish to participate in intercollegiate ath- 
letics. They also develop new material for Varsity 
teams. They bring students into contact and fellow- 
ship and form new friendships. They promote a spirit 
of comradeship, which makes college life more enjoy- 
able and also more beneficial. 

Example B 

For another example of the elimination of scanty and 
scrappy paragraphs by change of paragraphing, see under 
Rule 570. 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



273 



574. 



Change of Composition-structure 
In a composition the structure of which is 



defective, a scanty and scrappy paragraph cannot usually 
be united with the preceding or the following paragraph 
without violation of the Canon of Unity. In such a case 
some change in the structure of the composition is re- 
quired. Among the methods of procedure the following 
may be mentioned : 



Elimina- 
tion of 
scrappy- 
para- 
graphs by- 
change of 
compo- 
sition- 
structure 



Cancellation of Scrappy; Paragraphs 

575. A scanty and scrappy paragraph may be omitted. Omission 
576. When this is done, the title of the composition £ar£graph 
must in many cases be changed. 

Example A 

For example, consider the essay Some Landladies I 
have Known on page 269. The omission of the flat and 
meager paragraph that concludes this essay would be a 
decided improvement. If it is omitted, what remains of 
the essay will deal, not with " some landladies," but with 
one particular landlady ; the title should be changed ac- 
cordingly, thus : 

My Oshkosh Hostess 



I recall a landlady in Oshkosh with whom I once had 
to deal. When I arrived at her house to inquire for 
lodgings, I found her most hospitable ; she held out 
many inducements for me to engage a room under 
her roof — immediately under it, in fact. Beguiled 
by her fair promises, I and the friend who accompanied 
me established ourselves joyfully in Mrs. Yokum's 
two-pair-front. 

The promises Mrs. Yokum made on our first day 
she performed for two days. On the third day she 
prohibited certain acts which she had at first declared 
would be freely permitted. Taken by surprise, and 
not knowing immediately what to do, we submitted ; 
but our grievance rankled. A second grievance soon 



Amended 
version 
(cf . p. 269) 

Scrappy 
para- 
graph 
omitted 
and title 
of essay- 
changed 



274 



PARAGRAPHING 



followed : the meals, which had been very satisfactory, 
dwindled lamentably on the fourth day. We might 
submit to the loss of certain privileges as lodgers, but 
we refused to starve. We gave notice that unless a 
reformation took place at once in the commissariat 
we would leave. This protest was effectual. From 
that day to the day of our departure her table was as 
bountiful as an abbey refectory — almost. [See also 
Example B under Rule 579 and Example A under 
Rule 580.] 

Example B 

Again, consider the following composition, of which 
the second paragraph is scanty and scrappy : 



Scanty 
and 

scrappy 
paragraph 



Modern Newspapers 

Frequently after reading a daily paper for half an 
hour or more, I have thought over what I have read, 
and have wondered *what good it has done me, 
whether I have profited by it, and whether I might not 
have read all this in a short time. And I feel that 
the modern newspaper is made up almost wholly of ex- 
aggerated, sensational, and worthless news. For ex- 
ample, if a train wreck occurs, one will see at the top 
of the first page, flaring and sensational headlines. 
Then there will be several columns of reading matter 
in which practically the same thing is repeated over 
and over again. Then also the number of victims 
will be greatly exaggerated — frequently as much as 
tenfold. After a day or two one will find the true 
report in some secluded corner. This is true not only 
of railroad wrecks but also of many other happenings. 
The most famous example of worthless news was the 
report of the Thaw trial. Day after day whole pages 
of the proceedings of the trial were published. In 
reading the paper, one might have thought that Mrs. 
Thaw was of more importance than the President of 
the United States. After reading all about it, one 
had not gained any valuable knowledge ; it was all a 
waste of time. 

Another fault open to criticism is the style. This 
fault is especially true of the sporting page, where 
many slang phrases are used. Then also poor Eng- 
lish and poor constructions are used. 

I think that an ideal newspaper should be about as 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



275 



large as our college daily — a half of a folio sheet, 
containing four pages. The news should be stated 
clearly and correctly. The happenings of the day 
should be stated as briefly as possible without omit- 
ting any of the principal incidents. All reports should 
be written in good style. There should not be so 
many advertisements as most of the modern daily 
papers contain. I think that the reader would find 
such a paper more enjoyable, and also more instruc- 
tive. 

The faulty paragraph of this essay may be omitted, thus : 



The Shallowness or Modern Newspapers 

Frequently after reading a daily paper for half an 
hour or more, I have thought over what I have read, 
and have wondered what good it has done me, whether 
I have profited by it, and whether I might not have 
read all this in a short time. And I feel that the 
modern newspaper is made up almost wholly of exag- 
gerated, sensational, and worthless news. For ex- 
ample, if a train wreck occurs, one will see, at the. 
top of the first page, flaring and sensational headlines. 
Then there will be several columns of reading matter 
in which practically the same thing is repeated over 
and over again. Then also the number of victims 
will be greatly exaggerated — frequently as much as 
tenfold. After a day or two one will find the true 
report in some secluded corner. This is true not only 
of railroad wrecks but also of many other happenings. 
The most famous example of worthless news was the 
report of the Thaw trial. Day after day whole pages 
of the proceedings of the trial were published. In 
reading the paper, one might have thought that Mrs. 
Thaw was of more importance than the President of 
the United States. After reading all about it, one 
had not gained any valuable knowledge ; it was all a 
waste of time. 

I think that an ideal newspaper should be about as 
large as our college daily — a half of a folio sheet, con- 
taining four pages. The news should be stated clearly 
and correctly. The happenings of the day should be 
stated as briefly as possible without omitting any 
of the principal incidents. The reports should be 
written in good style. There should not be so many 
advertisements as most of the modern daily papers 



Amended 
version 
(cf. p. 274) 

Scrappy 
paragraph 
omitted 
and title 
of essay 
changed 
(see Rule 
576) 



276 



PARAGRAPHING 



Fatuous 
introduc- 
tions 



Fatuous 
introduc- 
tions 



contain. I think that the reader would find such a 
paper more enjoyable and also more instructive. 
[See also Example A under Rule 579 and Example B 
under Rule 580.] 

Example 

Another example of the omission of a scanty para- 
graph is given under A on page 285. 

577. It is a common fault to begin an essay with a 
scrappy paragraph which contributes nothing of value to 
the composition, and which the writer prefixes only be- 
cause he supposes that a composition is incomplete with- 
out an introductory passage. For example, an essay on 
the management of an incubator begins thus : 

The Management of an Incubator 

The incubator is a mechanical device for hatching 
eggs by artificial heat. It is used by all professional 
poultry men and by most progressive farmers. . . . 
[See page 249.] 

— as if one should begin an essay on how to dehorn a 
cow by informing the benighted reader, "A cow is a 
large tame animal used chiefly as a source of a white 
fluid called milk. Cows are kept by all dairymen and 
by most farmers, progressive or conservative," and 
should then proceed, "Cows are dehorned in* the follow- 
ing way. ..." An essay purporting to give a few 
practical directions to boys about taking care of rabbits 
begins thus : 

The Care of Rabbits 

Rabbits are very common and popular pets among 
the boys. They are easily handled and kept. . . . 
[See page 251.] 

A narrative of an occurrence in a Western town begins 
thus : 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



277 



The Agent's Tact 

An insurance agent is a person whom most people 
are not very anxious to see, especially those who have 
insurance or those who do not believe in insurance. 
These two classes of people always try and keep clear 
of an insurance agent. 

While I was employed in a general merchandise 
store in Baraboo, there was an insurance agent who 
was always trying to get one of my fellow-workmen 
to take out some insurance. . . . 

Such unprofitable and malapropos introductions should 
be omitted. There is no need that an essay have any 
introduction. If some preliminary remarks — a state- 
ment of the plan of the essay, of the writer's purpose, 
of the occasion for his writing, of the source of his infor- 
mation — contribute to the clearness or effectiveness 
or agreeableness of the essay, the essay is the better for 
such an introduction (see, for example, the introductory 
paragraphs on pages 222 and 262); otherwise there is no 
impropriety in beginning without preface the main body 
of the essay (see, for example, the essays on pages 208, 
210, 265, 272, 273, and 289). 



Introduc- 
tion not 
necessary 



578. A scrappy concluding paragraph that adds noth- 
ing to the clearness, effectiveness, or agreeableness of a 
composition should not be tacked on at the end. Tn par- 
ticular, the main body of a narrative should not be fol- 
lowed by a paragraph deducing a lifeless" moral, such as 
the following : 

And thus Velma learned, as so many had learned 
before her, and as so many have learned since, and so 
many — alas ! — are yet to learn, that all that glitters 
is not gold. 

This story shows us that we should be content 
with what we have and not be always seeking for 
more privileges. For as some one has said, "Enough 
is as good as a feast." 



Fatuous 
conclu- 
sions 



278 



PARAGRAPHING 



Conclu- 
sion not 
necessary- 



There is no need that a composition have any conclusion 
(as distinguished from the main body). If a helpful sum- 
mary, or a happy remark reverting to the beginning of 
the composition, or an interesting or amusing reflection 
suggested by the main discussion can be written at the 
end of a composition, so much the better (see, for ex- 
ample, the concluding paragraphs on pages 222 and 259); 
otherwise there is no reason why the last sentence of 
the main discussion should not conclude the composition 
(see, for example, the compositions on pages 214 and 262). 



Expansion of Scrappy Paragraphs 

Expansion 579. A scanty and scrappy paragraph may be ex- 
scrappy panded. The first step in this process is to make a plan 
paragraph (see Rules 551, 572) for a fuller treatment of the subject 



of the paragraph. 



Example A 



For example, consider again the composition Modern 
Newspapers on page 274. The subject of the faulty 
paragraph of that composition is the defective style of 
newspapers. For a fuller treatment of this subject we 
may adopt this plan : 

1. Bad English 

a. Words 

b. Constructions 

2. Rhetorical faults 

In accordance with this plan we may proceed as follows : 

Expanded Another fault of our newspapers is the style in which 

version^ they present the news. Their columns are sow r n with 

(cf. p. 274) provincial and vulgar expressions — " wealthy broker 

suicides," " Rev. Smith hits divorce," " Chief of 
Police Ryan claims that the hold-up proposition is a 
fake, ,, " a fight transpired last night in Clink's saloon," 
" Governor Haskell is up against it," u he offered to 
restitute the goods, but was jailed," "he has proven 
his worth," "close the deal," "the local Democracy 






THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 279 



can't be downed," "enthuse," "a big per cent,' ' "size 
up," "way down," and others — a nauseous multi- 
tude. The slang that abounds particularly on the 
sporting page is by some people regarded as clever 
and racy — or, to use the newspapers' own language, 
"snappy." But for my part, I see no cleverness in 
cramming an article with the greatest possible number 
of hackneyed and vulgar slang words — like "biff," 
"rattled," "dopey," "called down," " a bunch of 
fans," "all to the mustard." Ungrammatical con- 
structions are also common in newspapers — "the 
man whom Hicks said stole the watch," "neither one 
of them are candidates,"' "Major Moore with two 
companies of cavalry are to escort the Governor." 
Ill-arranged, shambling, shuffling sentences, such as 
no good writer ever puts down even in haste, strike 
one's eye continually. A typical one lies before me 
now : " Then he sent souvenir postal cards showing 
himself engaged in various criminal proceedings such 
as picking pockets to his wife." [Here we perceive 
that our discussion of the style of newspapers will be 
too long to stand advantageously in one paragraph 
(see Rule 567); we therefore decide to embody it in 
two paragraphs, corresponding to the two topics — 1, 
bad English, and 2, rhetorical faults. Accordingly, 
we begin a new paragraph here :] 

But even more offensive than the vulgar vocabulary, 
the untutored grammar, and the ramshackle sentences 
is the affectation that saturates newspaper style — 
affected grandiloquence and elegance, and, still more 
disgusting, affected wit and humor. I wish I knew a 
newspaper that could make a statement about an 
elephant without calling it a "pachyderm," or about 
a cat without calling it a " feline." I wish I knew a 
newspaper that could mention Boston, or Japan, or 
Kansas twice in a paragraph without calling it "the 
Hub," or "the Flowery Kingdom," or "the Sun- 
flower State" the second time. I wish a newspaper 
could mention anything twice — a football, a labor 
strike, a dog, a college faculty, a bowler, a rat, a 
telegraph operator, a reporter, a prize fighter, a fight, 
a hotel — without calling it by a lugged-in synonym 
the second time — " the pigskin sphere," "the gigan- 
tic tie-up." "the canine," " that erudite aggregation," 
"the devotee of the ten-pin game," "the voracious 
rodent," "the key man," "the scribe," "the big 
fellow," "the fistic encounter," "the hostelry." I 



280 



PARAGRAPHING 



wish the " bluecoats " would not always " make heroic 
efforts" to control the "struggling mass of human- 
ity." I wish more people were arrested, and fewer 
"taken into custody." I wish the fact might be 
announced to the public that Madison defeated Free- 
port without such braying as this : " A clean hit be- 
tween third and short by George Ives, a perfect sacri- 
fice by Mee, and a howling double by Kulms, the ball 
soaring over the right field fence, gave Madison yes- 
terday's game over Freeport, making it three times 
in three days that the Senators forced the stubborn 
Pretzels to eat the dust." 

These two paragraphs we substitute for the scanty and 
scrappy paragraph in the original essay. 

Example B 

The essay Some Landladies on page 269 might like- 
wise be amended by treating the second landlady on a 
scale proportioned to the treatment of the first. 



Transpo- 
sition of 
substance 
of a scrap- 
py para- 
graph 



Example C 

Another example of expansion of a scanty paragraph 
is given under B on pages 285-288. 

Transposition of the Material of a Scrappy Paragraph 

580. The substance of a scanty and scrappy paragraph 
may be incorporated in some other part of the compo- 
sition, its form being altered, and its substance being 
made subservient or incidental to that of the paragraph 
in which it is incorporated (cf. Rules 556, 557, 559, 
560). When this is done, the title of the composition 
must in many cases be changed (cf. Rule 576). 



Example A 

For example, the scanty paragraph of the essay Some 
Landladies on page 269' may be eliminated by transpo- 
sition as follows : 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



281 



My Oshkosh Hostess 

As a type of some landladies I have known who are Amended 

gracious and affable to prospective lodgers, but become version 

disagreeable, peevish, unreasonable, eccentric, and ( cf - P- 2 6' 9 ) 

othenvise vicious after the lodgers are established, I See Rule 

recall a landlady in Oshkosh with whom I once had to 557 
deal. . . . [And so on, the paragraph beginning 
"Another landlady" being omitted.~] 

Example B 

Likewise the faulty paragraph in the essay Modern 
Newspapers, quoted on page 274, may be eliminated by 
transposition thus :" 

The Shallowness of Modern Newspapers 

Frequently after reading a daily paper for half an Amended 
hour or more, I have thought over what I have read, version 
and have wondered what good it has done me, whether ( cf • P- 2 ?4) 
I have profited by it, and whether I might not have 
read all this in a short time. / am not considering 
now the style of our newspapers — the bad English, 
the slang of the sporting page, the ungrammatical and See Rule 
ill-constructed phraseology — but only the substance. 556 
I feel that the modern newspaper is made up almost 
wholly of exaggerated, sensational, and worthless 
news. . . . [And so on, the paragraph beginning 
t; Another fault" being omitted.^ 



Example C 

Another example of the elimination of a scrappy para- 
graph by transposition is given under C on page 288. 



Amputated Conclusions 

581. It is a common fault to end a composition with Ampu- 
a scanty paragraph that introduces a new topic coordinate e no?mg S 
with those of the preceding main components, and then 
abruptly lets the new topic drop. 



282 PARAGRAPHING 

Example A 
This fault is illustrated by the following essay : 

My College Work of the Past Semester 

During the past semester I have had considerable 
trouble with some of my studies in college. I have 
found my English work particularly hard ; I have 
great difficulty in writing themes free from errors — 
especially grammatical errors. When in high school, 
I did not expect to attend college ; I therefore did only 
sufficient work to gain my high school diploma. This 
was the cause of my troubles. Had I expected to go 
to college, and had I known the requirements of col- 
lege work, I should have done my high school work 
more thoroughly. The great lesson I have learned 
from my difficulties is to apply myself to my work. 
In other words, I have learned to study, and to study 
hard. 
Ampu- Some of my courses have been easy for me on ac- 

tated count of a natural mechanical ability — for instance, 

ending drawing and shop work. 

This essay is constructed thus : 

I. Difficulties in my work 
II. Easy parts of my work 

On the first topic the writer has made a fair paragraph ; 
the second he merely introduces and then drops. The 
resulting weakness and incompleteness of the essay will 
be noted. (Concerning the correction of this essay, see 
pages 285-288.) 

Example B 
Another example is the following essay : 

Woman Suffrage 

Women should vote. Not until this privilege is 
granted them can the constitution be a bulwark of 
freedom and justice to all. A woman obeys the laws, 
is punished if she violates them, must bear taxation; 
yet she has no more rights than a child. She is de- 






THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



283 



prived of one great and important right — i.e., repre- 
sentation. Without doubt woman is man's equal and 
often his superior morally and intellectually. Men 
are not the rulers of the earth on account of their 
intellectual power, but because of their superior 
strength. It is a case of oppression of the weak 
'by the strong. Women are better judges of men's 
character and more particular in general than men 
are, and naturally would vote for the best man, 
socially as well as politically. 

One objection to woman suffrage is that it would 
destroy the home life too often. This objection is 
not a good one, as a woman who really cared for 
her family and children would have the same affec- 
tion for them if she did take half an hour a few times 
a year in which to vote. Some men take all day and 
half the night to vote. In every case a woman would 
cast a vote for the protection of children. Her mother 
instinct gives her an insight into the needs and require- 
ments of children that men seldom see. Women also 
have more time and inclination to study and work for 
the welfare of children. 

It is said that a majority of women do not care to 
vote, as the polls are unfit for a woman's presence. 
If this is so, what is the reason for it ? It is because 
women have been deprived of their rights so long that 
such freedom is strange at first. Some negroes did not 
desire freedom either. Perhaps a woman's vote would 
drive profanity from the polls and make them fit for 
a respectable person. If the polls are not fit for a 
woman, they are not fit for a decent man, and should 
be made better right away. 

Wherever woman suffrage has been tried, it has 
met with success, and better conditions have followed. 
Four states have enfranchised women, and many 
reforms have followed. 

This essay makes four arguments : 

I. Justice requires woman suffrage 

II. Woman suffrage would not injure, but would safe- 
guard, home life 

III. Women's objection to attendance at the polls would 
be only temporary 

IV. Woman suffrage is justified by experience 

The fourth and weightiest argument, which occupies the 
place of honor in the essay, — the place where the most 



Ampu- 
tated 
ending 



284 



PARAGRAPHING 



telling blows should be struck, — is only introduced and 
then dropped with two weak and unsupported generaliza- 
tions. 

Example C 

Another example is the following essay : 



Ampu- 
tated 
ending 

Three pro- 
cedures 
in case of 
amputated 
ending : 

(A) cancel- 
lation, 

(B) expan- 
sion, or 

(C) trans- 
position 



Farm Life in Winter 

During the winter, when there are no growing 
crops to be cared for, the necessary daily routine of a 
Wisconsin farmer is comparatively short. Of course 
the stock and the poultry must be fed and tended 
every day ; but having done this, the farmer still has 
a good deal of time for other than routine work. Some 
of this surplus time is employed in preparing grain, 
by means of the fanning mill, for the spring plant- 
ing ; some is employed in cutting and hauling 
wood enough to last through the coming summer 
and autumn. 

But on farms in the far Northwest the winter does 
not always pass so quietly. There, farmers must be 
on the watch for blizzards. When a blizzard is feared, 
the cattle must be brought into a place of safety, for 
no one can tell how long the storm will last. All the 
energies of the farmer are devoted to preserving his 
cattle, for in this district the cattle are his chief 
source of income. At such a time, also, the farmer 
must take care that his home is provided with enough 
fuel and food to stand a long siege of snow, for if he 
were to go out in search of these necessaries during a 
blizzard, he might very probably never be seen again. 

In districts where there are maple forests, the late 
, winter is spent in tapping the trees and collecting the 
sap. 

582. A scanty concluding paragraph which intro- 
duces a new topic and abruptly lets it drop should be 
eliminated by one of the methods shown above in Rules 
575, 579, 580 : (A) it should be omitted, the title of 
the composition being changed, if necessary, in this case ; 
or (B) it should be expanded to fitting proportions ; or 
(C) its substance, in altered form, should be incorporated 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



285 



elsewhere in the composition, the title of the composition 
being changed, if necessary, in this case. 

For example, consider the essay My College Work of 
the Past Semester on page 282. 

A. The scanty concluding paragraph of that essay 
may be omitted, and the title may be changed (see Rules 
575, 576), thus: 



(A) Can- 
cellation 



My Difficulties of the Past Semester 

During the past semester I have had considerable 
trouble with some of my studies in college. I have found 
my English work particularly hard ; I have great dif- 
ficulty in writing themes free from errors — especially 
grammatical errors. When in high school, I did not 
expect to attend college ; I therefore did only suffi- 
cient work to gain my high school diploma. This 
was the cause of my troubles. Had I expected to go 
. to college, and had I known the requirements of col- 
lege work. I should have done my high school work 
more thoroughly. The great lesson I have learned 
from my difficulties is, to apply myself to my work. 
In other words, I have learned to study, and to study 
hard. 

B. The final paragraph in question (printed on page 
282) may be expanded. This may be done according to 
the following plan (see Rules 551 and 579) : 



Amended 
version 
(cf . p. 282) 



Scrappy- 
paragraph 
omitted 
and title 
of essay 
changed 



(B) Ex- 
pansion 



thus: 



Subject of the paragraph : 
Introduction 

1. Drawing 

2. Shop work 



Easy parts of my work 



Two of my courses have been easy for me on account 
of a natural mechanical ability. I refer to the courses 
in drawing and shop work. My work in drawing was 
very successful from the very beginning. I had had 
no experience whatever in mechanical drawing, and 
the requirements of my instructor were very strict. 
Nevertheless, in spite of these disadvantages, I had no 
difficulty in securing high standings in drawing. With 
my shop work the case was somewhat different, for in 
this I had the advantage of a good deal of previous 



Amended 
version 
(cf. p. 282) 



Final 

paragraph 

expanded 



286 



PARAGRAPHING 



If greater 
expansion 
were 
desirable 



How to 
expand 



experience. This, together with my native aptitude 
for mechanical work, made my work in the shop just 
as successful as my work in the drawing class, and 
even less difficult. 

Note. — The foregoing paragraph might well, for the sake 
of proportion, be expanded still more if the first paragraph 
of the essay were longer, as in the version of the essay printed 
on page 287 . In that case some of the general statements in 
the paragraph " Two of my courses" etc., on page 285, 
might be supported by the addition of examples and details. 
Thus, the paragraph contains this statement : 

I had had no experience whatever in mechanical draw- 
ing. 

This we might make fuller and more emphatic by adding 
details thus : 

I had had no experience whatever in mechanical draw- 
ing ; I had never even seen a drawing pen or a sheet 
of drawing paper before I came to college. 

This is not merely using thirty words for a statement that 
could be made as well in ten. The thirty-word statement is 
more forcible and interesting than the ten-word statement. 
In using the thirty-word form here, we are not padding, to 
fill space; we are using that form in preference to a form 
which is inferior, but which is more suitable, on account of 
proportion, for the shorter essay. Again, the paragraph 
contains the following statement : 

.... the requirements of my instructor were very 
strict. 

This statement might likewise be made fuller and more em- 
phatic by adding details, thus : 

.... the requirements of my instructors were very 
strict. The utmost accuracy and finish were insisted 
upon, and the penalties for even slight imperfections 
in workmanship were heavy. 

Again, the paragraph contains this statement : 

.... I had the advantage of a good deal of previous 
experience. 

Details of the experience might be added : 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



287 



.... having worked a whole year at an engine lathe, 
having spent several of my vacations in a large car- 
penter shop, and having also been engaged several 
times in building work. 

If we made all these additions, we should have the paragraph 
shown in the following version of the essay : 



My College Work of the Past Semester 

During the past semester I have had considerable 
trouble with some of my studies in college. In all 
courses given in the university, much attention is paid 
to detail. While my work has been very good in some 
respects, yet in detail it has been very faulty. I have 
found my English work particularly hard ; I have 
great difficulty in writing themes free from errors — 
especially grammatical errors. The cause of my dif- 
ficulties was the fact that my high school training 
was extremely defective. In the first place, my high 
school instructors were very negligent in regard to the 
details of the students' work. In the second place, 
when I. was in high school, I did not expect to attend 
college ; I therefore did only sufficient work to gain 
my high school diploma. Had. I expected to go to 
college, and had I known the requirements of college 
work, I should have done my high school work more 
thoroughly, and so should have escaped many of the 
difficulties I have mentioned. My difficulties have 
taught me that I must try to perfect my work in de- 
tail, in order to succeed in my college course. They 
have taught me to apply myself to my work. In other 
words, I have learned to study, and study hard. 
They have also brought to my attention and have 
impressed upon me a fact which we students are 
inclined not to realize at the present time, but which 
we shall realize after we have finished our course, and 
come to make practical use of what we have learned: 
the fact that only by mastering the minutiae of a study 
can one learn how to put that study to the best prac- 
tical use. 

Two of my courses have been easy for irie on account 
of a natural mechanical ability. I refer to the courses 
in drawing and shop work. My work in drawing 
was very successful from the beginning. I had had 
no experience whatever in 'mechanical drawing; I had 
never even seen a drawing pen or a sheet of drawing 



Amended 
version 
(cf . p. 282) 



First 

paragraph 

made 

longer 

(cf.p.243), 

and 

second 

therefore 

expanded 

still more 

than on 

page 285. 



Expanded 
paragraph 
(cf. p. 282) 



288 



PARAGRAPHING 



(C) Trans- 
position 



paper before I came to college. Moreover, the 
requirements of my instructor were very strict ; the ut- 
most accuracy and finish were insisted upon, and the 
penalties for even slight imperfections in workmanship 
were heavy. Nevertheless, in spite of these disad- 
vantages, I found no difficulty in securing high stand- 
ings in drawing. With my shop work the case was 
somewhat different, for in this I had the advantage of 
a good deal of previous experience, having worked a 
whole year at an engine lathe, having spent several of 
my vacations in a large carpenter shop, and having 
also been engaged several times in building work. 
This previous practice, together with my native apti- 
tude for manual operations, made my work in the shop 
as successful as my work in the drawing class, and 
even less difficult. 

C. The substance of the paragraph in question (see 
page 282) may be incorporated, in altered form, else- 
where in the essay, and the title may be changed (see 
Kule 580), thus : 



Amended 
version 
(cf . p. 282) 

See Rules 
560, 557 



Difficulties in my College Work 

During the past semester, although some parts of 
my work — for instance, drawing and shop work — 
have been easy for me, on account of a natural me- 
chanical ability, yet in some of my courses I have had 
considerable trouble. I have found my English work 
particularly hard. . . . [And so on, the second para- 
graph being omitted.^ 



Entire re- 
construc- 
tion 
necessary 

Method of 
recon- 
struction 



Reconstruction 

583. In case a composition contains a number of 
scanty and scrappy paragraphs and is besides defective 
in structure, it is profitless to try to eliminate the faulty 
paragraphs by any of the methods above shown ; the 
only thing to do is to make a fresh start, and reconstruct 
the composition according to the plan explained in Kules 
551 and 572. 

This is the case, for instance, with the autobiography 
beginning on page 268. This composition we may re- 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



289 



construct as follows : First, we make an outline, suggested 
by the material in the composition, thus : 

I. Early years 

1. Birth [See line 1.] 

2. Education [See lines 2-9.] 

3. Pastimes [See lines 50-52.] 
II. High school period 

1. Studies [See lines 13-16, 18-23.] 

2. Other activities 

a. Those connected with school life 

(1) Athletic [See lines 42-47.] 

(2) Social [See lines 10-13, 31-41.] 

(3) Literary, oratorical and dramatic [See lines 

26-30.] 

b. Vacations [See lines 16-18, 24-25.] 
III. Present status [See lines 53-55.] 

Second, we decide on this mode of paragraphing : 



[1. Birth . , 

I. Early years < 2. Education , 

3. Pastimes , 



II. High 
school 



1. Studies 



2. Other 
activ- 
ities 



(1) Athletic 

(2) Social . 

(3) Literary, 
orator- 
ical, and 
dramatic 

b. Vacations .... 



a. In 
school 
life 



III. Present status 



pi 

J1T2 
{1T4 



Third, we write the composition according to the fore- 
going plans, thus : 



Autobiography of Norris Dodd Pixkerton 

I was born in 1888 in Bridgewater, Iowa, where 
most of my life has been spent. My early education 
I received from my parents, who taught me my A B C's 
and how to add, subtract, and multiply. With this 
handicap in my favor, I started to school at the age 
of seven. On the first day I was very timid. The 



Recon- 
structed 
version 
(cf . p. 268) 



290 PARAGKAPHINGf 

teacher saw this, I suppose, and tried to reassure me 
by speaking to me pleasantly ; but thinking she was 
making fun of me, I took offense and went home. 
My grade-school career, however, was not to be cut 
short at the very outset by this little rupture ; I re- 
turned on the next day, and made a fresh start. From 
that time on, my course in the grade school ran pros- 
perously on to its completion. What I remember best 
about it is that I found it necessary to spend only one 
year in each grade ; at the end of each year I was 
promoted into the next grade above. Meanwhile I 
• was not idle out of school. I was then, as I am still, 
an enthusiastic swimmer, boatman, and fisherman ; 
and many were the hours I spent, out of school hours 
and during vacations, on Johnson's Creek, boating, 
fishing, and swimming in summer, and fishing through 
the ice in winter. 

In the autumn of 1902 I entered high school. I 
succeeded fairly well in my freshman studies, and at 
the end of the year was promoted to the sophomore 
class. The standings I received in my sophomore 
year were the highest I obtained in my whole course. 
My junior year was a year of very hard work on 
account of the large amount of laboratory work I 
had to do. Also, in this year I had to study plane 
geometry, and try as I might, I could never make 
head or tail of that subject ; in the final examination, 
however, I got 77. The work of the fourth year . . . 
[ The plan of the narrative requires that something be 
said on this subject, but data are wanting. ] 

During my high school course I was always inter- 
ested in athletics, — particularly baseball and foot- 
ball, — though I did not engage actively in them. I 
did play football, to be sure, for a time ; but one 
afternoon I fell in a scrimmage and arose with a 
broken collar bone ; this accident kept me from active 
participation in the game for some time. My social 
life during my high school years was a busy one. 
When I entered school I was very timid, but I rapidly 
made friends and soon became one of the best known 
members of my class. In my sophomore year I and 
eleven other sophomores formed a club called the 
H. D., for the continuance of which (for years to 
come, we hope) we provided at our graduation by 
choosing twelve members of the sophomore class to 
succeed us. This club holds every year, on Decern- 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



291 



ber 30, a banquet, which is attended by the active 
chapter and as many as possible of the alumni mem- 
bers. Besides taking an interest, as I have said, in 
athletics, and an active part in social affairs, I was, 
during my high school course, a member of the lit- 
erary society and of the debating society. Nor did I 
hold aloof from the dramatic endeavors of the school : 
in Charley's Aunt, which my class presented at its 
graduation, I took the title role. The summer vaca- 
tions of my high school years I spent principally in 
my favorite pastimes, swimming, boating, and fishing, 
varied, in the summer following my junior year, by 
some work as timekeeper for a gang of Greeks laying 
a railroad. 

Now I am a student at Minnehaha College, where I 
expect to receive my bachelor's degree in 1911. [ litis 
last paragraph is not scanty and scrappy , for there is 
no reason, inherent in the character of the essay, for 
saying anything more on the subject.'] 

THE PARAGRAPHING OF DIRECT QUOTATIONS 

584. In narrative compositions, as a rule, any narrated 
direct quotation, together with the rest of the sentence 
of which it is a part, should be paragraphed separately. 
For example : 

Right : 

There were no takers. Not a man believed him 
capable of the feat. Thornton had been hurried into 
the wager, heavy with doubt ; and now that he looked 
at the sled itself, the concrete fact, with the regular 
team of ten dogs curled up in the snow before it, the 
more impossible the task appeared. Matthewson 
waxed jubilant. 

" Three to one," he proclaimed. "I'll lay you an- 
other thousand at that figure, Thornton. What d'ye 
say?" 

Thornton's doubt was strong in his face, but his 
fighting spirit was aroused — the fighting spirit that 
soars above odds, fails to recognize the impossible, 
and is deaf to all save the clamor for battle. He 
called Hans and Pete to him. Their sacks were slim, 
and with his own the three partners could rake to- 
gether only two hundred dollars. In the ebb of their 
fortunes this sum was their total capital ; yet they laid 
it unhesitatingly against Matthewson's six hundred. 



Direct 
quotations 
to be para- 
graphed 
separately 
in nar- 
rative 



Narrated 
quotation 



292 



PARAGRAPHING 



Indention 
of follow- 
ing line 



Indention 
after 
preceding 
he said 



Improper 
if con- 
taining 
predica- 
tion is 
continued 



Quota- 
tions not 
narrated 



585. The line following the end of a quotation that is 
paragraphed separately should be indented, since it is 
the beginning of a new paragraph. 

WRONG: 

u You must stand off from him," Matthewson pro- 
tested. " Free play and plenty of room." 
The crowd fell silent ; only could be heard the voices 
of gamblers vainly offering two to one. 
Right : 

"You must stand off from him," Matthewson pro- 
tested. " Free play and plenty of room." 

The crowd fell silent ; only could be heard the 
voices of gamblers vainly offering two to one. 

586. A quotation may be detached by paragraphing 
from the introductory expression (e.g., he said) if this 
expression precedes it. 

Right : 

Mr. Peggoty looked round upon us and nodding his 
head with a lively expression animating his face, said 
in a whisper, 

" She's been thinking of the old 'un." 

587. But a quotation should not be so detached from 
the introductory expression if the quotation does not close 
the sentence. 

WRONG: 

Thinking I could stand it if my friend could, I 
called out to him, 

44 Come on. Who's afraid ? " and started into the 
house. 
WRONG: 

Thinking I could stand it if my friend could, I 
called out to him, 

44 Come on. Who's afraid ? " 
and started into the house. 
Right : 

Thinking I could stand it if my friend could, 



called out to him, " Come on. 
started into the house. 



Who's afraid ? " and 



588. Rule 584 does not usually apply to quotations 
not narrated, nor to quotations narrated by way of illus- 






THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 



293 



tration in an expository, argumentative, persuasive, or 
descriptive passage. 

NOT GOOD (quotation not narrated) : 

Perhaps the reader asks at this point, 
11 But how did Bellairs learn these details ? " 
I cannot answer the question. That part of the 
story has never yet been cleared up. 
Eight : 

Perhaps the reader asks at this point, "But how did 
Bellairs learn these details?" I cannot answer the 
question ; that part of the story has never been 
cleared up. 
But note : 

Eight (quotations narrated) : 
At this point Jim broke in, 
" But how "did Bellairs learn these details ? " 
I could not answer. That part of the story I had 
not been able to clear up ; and in fact, it has never 
yet been cleared up. 
Eight (quotation not narrated) : 

Mr. Eoebuck is never weary of repeating this argu- 
ment. " May not every man in England say what he 
likes ? " Mr. Eoebuck asks. But the aspirations of 
• culture are not satisfied unless what men say, when 

they say what they like, is worth saying. 
Eight (quotation not narrated): 

The people who believe most that our greatness and 
welfare are proved by our being very rich, and who 
most give their lives and thoughts to becoming 
rich, are just the very people whom we call Philistines. 
Culture says, " Consider these people, then, their way 
of life, their habits, their manners, the very tones of 
their voice ; observe the literature they read, the 
things which give them pleasure, the words which 
come forth out of their mouths, the thoughts which 
make the furniture of their minds ; would any amount 
of wealth be worth having on the condition that one 
was to become just like these people by having it?" 
And thus culture begets a dissatisfaction which saves 
the future, as one may hope, from being vulgarized, 
even if it cannot save the present. 
Eight (quotation narrated in an expository passage) : 
A policy of this limited, practical order was not only 
best suited to the England of her day, but was emi- 
nently suited to Elizabeth's peculiar powers. "No 
war, my lords," the Queen used to cry imperiously at 



Quota- 
tions not 
narrated 



Quota- 
tion in ex- 
pository 



294 



PARAGRAPHING 



Quotation 
in persua- 
sive con- 
text 



Dialogue 



Para- 
graphing 
of narra- 
tive as 
affected 
bv Rule 
584 



the council board, " no war ! " But her hatred of war 
sprang less from her aversion to blood or to ex- 
pense than from the fact that peace left the field open 
to the diplomatic intrigues in which she excelled. 
• Right (quotation narrated in a persuasive passage) : 

The party which to-day nominates Captain Kidd will 
to-morrow nominate Judas Iscariot ; and to-morrow, 
as to-day, party spirit will spurn you as a traitor for 
refusing to sell your master. " I tell you," said an 
ardent and well-meaning partisan, u I tell you this is 
a nasty state, and I hope we have done nasty work 
enough to carry it." But if your state has been car- 
ried by nasty means this year, success will require 
nastier next year, and the nastiest means will always 
carry it. 

589. Rule 584 should be especially observed in the 
report of a conversation ; each speech, regardless of length, 
should be paragraphed separately. 

WRONG : 

"When did you arrive?" I asked. "An hour 
ago," he answered. "Didn't you get my letter?" 
" No." " Strange," he said. 
Right : 

" When did you arrive ? " I asked. 

"An hour ago," he answered. "Didn't you get 
my letter? " 

"No." 

" Strange," he said. 

590. In narrative a thought-component which might 
advantageously be presented with particular distinctness 
as a whole, cannot (on account of Rule 584) be embodied 
in a single paragraph if it contains several quotations or 
some quoted and some original matter. But the begin- 
ning and the end of such a thought-component can be, and 
should be, marked by paragraph divisions. 

For example, consider the following extract from a 
story : 

He washed at the pump, while the girl, in her at- 
tempt to be hospitable, held the clean towel for him. 
" You're purty well used up, eh ? " he said to her. 
" Yes ; it's awful hot out there." 



THE CANON OF ADVANTAGE 295 

5 " Can't you lay off this afternoon ? It ain't right." 
" No ; he won't listen to that." 
11 Well, let me take your place." 
" No ; there ain't any use o' that." 
Peterson, a brawny, wide-bearded Norwegian, came 
10 up at this moment, and spoke to Rob in a sullen, gruff 
way. 

" Hallo. Whan yo' gaet back ? " 

u To-day. He ain't very glad to see me," said Rob, 

winking at Julia. " He ain't bilin' over with enthu- 

15 siasm. But I c'n stand it, for your sake," he added 

with amazing assurance ; but the girl had turned away, 

and it was wasted. 

At the table he ate heartily of the " bean swaagen," 
which filled a large wooden bowl in the center of the 
20 table, and which was ladled into smaller wooden bowls 
at each place. Rob kept on safe subjects, mainly ask- 
ing questions about the crops of Peterson, and when 
addressing the girl, inquired of her schoolmates. By 
skillful questioning he kept the subject of marriage 
25 uppermost, and seemingly was getting an inventory 
of the girls not yet married or engaged. 

The first seventeen lines of this extract constitute a 
thought-component which should be distinguished from 
the matter preceding and following, since it presents one 
particular scene of the drama — the scene at the well. 
This thought-component is, on account of the direct quo- 
tations, not embodied in a single paragraph ; yet its begin- 
ning ("He washed at the pump" in line 1) is marked 
by a paragraph division, and its end ("it was wasted " in 
line 17) is marked by the fact that the next statement 
("At the table" etc. in line 18) begins a new paragraph. 



EXERCISES 



Exercises in Manuscript-arrangement 

Indention 601. Study Rules 26-33. Write out the following pas- 
sage, dividing your copy into ten paragraphs as the original 
is divided. 

"There is only one thing more wanted to make me happy," 
continued the newcomer, "and that is a little baccy, which I 
am sorry to say I am out of." 

" I'll fill your pipe," said the shepherd. 

" I must ask you to lend me a pipe likewise." 

" A smoker, and no pipe about 'ee? " 

"I have dropped it somewhere on the road." 

The shepherd filled and handed him a new clay pipe, saying 
as he did so, "Hand me your baccy-box; I'll fill that too, now 
I am about it." 

The man went through the movement of searching his pockets. 

" Lost that too? " said his entertainer with some surprise. 

" I am afraid so," said the man with some confusion. " Give 
it to me in a screw of paper." 

Lighting his pipe at the candle with a suction that drew the 
whole flame into the bowl, he resettled himself in the corner. 



"Writing 
verse 



602. Study Rules 34, 35, 213. Copy the following verses : 

Blissful, they turned them to go; but the fair-tressed Pallas 

Athene' 
Rose, like a pillar of tall white cloud, toward silver Olympus, 
Far above ocean and shore, and the peaks of the isles and the 

mainland, 
Where no frost nor storm is, in clear blue windless abysses, 
High in the home of the summer, the seats of the happy Im- 
mortals. 

Kingsley. 



603. Study Rules 34, 36, 213. Copy the following stanza : 

Like a poet hidden 

In the light of thought, 
Sinking hymns unbidden, 
Till the world is wrought 
To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not. 

Shelley. 

296 



MANUSCRIPT-ARRANGEMENT 



297 



604. Study Rules 34-36, 213. Copy the following stanza : Writing 

verse 
And yet these days of subtler air and finer 

Delight, 
When lovelier looks the darkness, and diviner 

The light — 
The gift they give of all these golden hours, 

Whose urn 
Pours forth reverberate rays or shadowing showers, 

In turn — 
Clouds, beams, and winds that make the live day's track 

Seem living — 
What were they did no spirit give them back 

Thanksgiving ? Swinburne. 

605. Study Rules 34-36, 213. Copy the following stanza • 

Hence, loathed Melancholy, 

Of Cerberus and blackest Midnight born, 

In Stygian cave forlorn, 

'Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks, and sights unholy! 
Find out some uncouth cell, 

Where brooding Darkness spreads his jealous wings, 

And the night-raven sings ; 
There, under ebon shades, and low-brow'd rocks, 
As ragged as thy locks, 

In dark Cimmerian desert ever dwell. 

Milton. 

606. Study Rules 34-37, 213. Write out the following Quoted 
passage, arranging the quotations correctly : poetry 

With the lines " hard by a cottage chimney smokes from 
betwixt two aged oaks" the scene changes. In contrast to 
the u towers and battlements," " bosom'd high in tufted 
trees," Milton now shows us a humble farmstead, and 
pictures the lives of the peasants who live there. The hus- 
band has come in from the fields ; it is his noonday resting 
time, and he and his wife " are at their savoury dinner set 
of herbs and other country messes." And after the meal 
we see them resuming the day's work — binding the sheaves 
and tossing the hay — the wife working beside the husband. 
At last evening comes ; and now, perhaps, they go to a 
country dance, where the fiddler's tunes "sound to many 
a youth and many a maid dancing in the chequer'd 
shade." 



Note. ■ 
legro : 



-The quotations are from the following part of L'Al- 

Towers and battlements it sees 
Bosom'd high in tufted trees, 
Where perhaps some beauty lies, 



298 



EXERCISES 



Doubling 
of final 
conso- 
nants : 

Miscel- 
laneous 
words 



The Cynosure of neighbouring eyes. 

Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes 

From betwixt two aged oaks, 

Where Corydon and Thyrsis, met, 

Are at their savoury dinner set 

Of herbs, and other country messes, 

Which the neat-handed Phillis dresses ; 

And then in haste her bower she leaves, 

With Thestylis to bind the sheaves ; 

Or, if the earlier season lead, 

To the tann'd haycock in the mead. 

Sometimes with secure delight 

The upland hamlets will invite, 

When the merry bells ring round, 

And the jocund rebecks sound 

To many a youth, and many a maid, 

Dancing in the chequer'd shade. 



607. Study 
words : 

bid 
bidden 

fat 
fatten 

rot 
rotten 

sad 
sadden 

glad 
gladden 

flat 
flatten 



Exercises in Spelling 
Rules 52-56. Write the following pairs of 



sad 

sadder 

saddest 

glad 

gladder 

gladdest 

fat 

fatter 

fattest 

flat 

flatter 

flattest 



man 
mannish 

clan 
clannish 

red 
reddish 

Scot 
Scottish 

sot 
sottish 

bat 
batter 



quiz 
quizzes 

whiz 
whizzes 

Bob 
Bobby 

Tom 
Tommy 

god 

goddess 

occur 
occurrence 



Miscel- 
laneous 
verbs 



608. Study Rules 52, 53. Write the infinitive, the pres- 
ent participle, and the past participle of each of the follow- 
ing verbs {e.g., stop, stopping, stopped): rob, crib, stab, 
bed, bud, beg, flog, sprig, rig, hem, ram, hum, plan, skin, 
shun, pin, rip, drop, stop, grip, tip, equip, dip, whip, slip, 
scar, mar, debar, occur, demur, prefer, refer, confer, bat, 
pet, rot, flit, quit, regret, omit, commit, permit, admit, re- 
pel, propel, compel, expel, impel. Write the infinitive and 
the present participle of each of the following verbs {e.g., 
sit, sitting) : bid, rid, shed, dig, run, begin, spin, swim, 
ivin, sit, set, bet, get, let, cut, hit, put, shut, split. 






SPELLING 



299 



609. Study Rules 52, 53. Write the infinitive, the pres- 
ent participle, and the past participle of each of the follow- 
ing verbs (e.g., rob, robbing, robbed) : rob, crib, stab, bud, 
beg, flog, rig, ram, hem, hum. Write the infinitive and the 
present participle of each of the following : shed, bid, dig, 
swim. 



Miscel- 
laneous 
mono- 
syllabic 
verbs 



610. Study Rules 52, 53. Write the infinitive, the pres- Verbs in r 
ent participle, and the past participle of each of the follow- 
ing verbs {e.g., occur, occurring, occurred) : occur, demur, 

concur, prefer, refer, confer, deter, scar, mar, war, spur, 
slur. 

611. Study Rules 52, 53. Write the infinitive, the present Verbs inp 
participle, and the past participle of each of the following 

verbs (e.g., drop, dropping, dropped): drop, stop, rip, grip, 
tip, dip, whip, slip, slap, lap, flap, rap, mop, sup, equip. 

612. Study Rules 52, 53. Write the infinitive, the present Verbs in t 
participle, and the past participle of each of the following 

verbs (e.g., omit, omitting, omitted) : omit, commit, permit, 
admit, emit, intermit, submit, regret, flit, rot, pet, bat. 
Write the infinitive and the present participle of the follow- 
ing verbs : sit, set, bet, get, let, wet, hit, cut, put, shut, split, 
spit, quit. 

613. Study Rules 52, 53. Write the infinitive, the present Verbs in n 
participle, and the past participle of each of the following 

verbs (e.g., plan, planning, planned) : plan, skin, shun, pin, 
pen, fan, tan, sin, dun. Write the infinitive and the pres- 
ent participle of each of the following : run, begin, win, spin. 

614. Study Rule 60. Write the infinitive, the participle, Trafficked 
the present third singular, and the past of each of the fol- etc. 
lowing verbs (e.g., traffic, trafficking, traffics, trafficked) : 

traffic, frolic, picnic, physic, shellac. 

615. Study Rule 61. Write the following words, together Dropping 
with the adjectives ending in able derived from thern (e.g., final e: 
love, lovable): love, excuse, believe, sale, deplore, appease, Before 
use, forgive, live. able 

616. Study Rule 61. Write the infinitive and the present Before ing 
participle of each of the following verbs (e.g., place, placing): 

place, grace, shade, recede, abide, oblige, bulge, strike, bake, 
take, come, home, shine, dine, arrange, slope, scrape, pore, 
scare, please, seize, lose, write, bite, procrastinate, grate, 
hate, have, strive, rove, rave. 



300 



EXERCISES 



Final e 617. Study Rule 62. Write each of the following words 

retained: together with its derivative ending in ous (e.g., courage, 
Coura- courageous): courage, advantage, outrage, umbrage. Write 

geous etc. each of the following words together with its derivative end- 
ing in able (e.g., notice, noticeable): notice, peace, manage, 
change. 

Before ly 618. Study Rule 63. Write the following words together 
with their derivatives in ly (e.g., severe, severely): severe, 
complete, separate, lone, wise, fine, intimate, infinite, definite, 
adequate, polite, resolute, immense, mere, state, fierce, rude, 
respective, active, furtive, acute, remote. 



Before 619. Study Rule 

ful, less, words : 
me?it, ness 

use 

useful 

useless 



hope 

hopeful 

hopeless 



63. Write the following groups of 



care 

careful 

careless 



tune 

tuneful 

tuneless 

rude 
rudeness 

polite 
politeness 

acute 
acuteness 



fierce 
fierceness 

remote 
remoteness 

noise 
noiseless 

hate 
hateful 

move 
movement 



Final y : 

Plurals in 
ies and eys 



Verbs 



Business 
etc. 



620. Study Rule 64. Write the singular and the plural 
of each of the following nouns (e.g., lady, ladies; valley, 
valleys) : lady, body, buggy, lily, folly, dummy, ninny, com- 
pany, harmony, copy, berry, library, century, country, cour- 
tesy, city, party, frivolity, valley, monkey, chimney, money, 
pulley, volley, kidney, trolley, donkey, galley, attorney. 

621. Study Rule 65. Write the first and third persons, 
present indicative, and the first person past, of each of the 
following verbs (e.g., I cry, he cries, I cried): cry, fly, fry, 
try, apply, supply, defy, deny, satisfy, classify, hurry, marry, 
carry, tarry, bury. 

622. Study Rule 66. Write the following pairs of words : 



happy 

rosy 

fluffy 

crazy 

dizzy 

lonely 

busy 



happi-ness 

rosi-ness 

fluffi-ness 

crazi-ness 

dizzi-ness 

loneli-ness 

busi-ness 





SPELLING 


301 




623. Study 

marry 
marriage 

carry 
carriage 


Rule 66. Write the following 

beauty necessary 
beautiful necessarily 

bounty noisy 
bountiful noisily 


pairs of words : 

happy 

happily 

happiness 

weary 


Miscel- 
laneous 

surhxes 


mercy 

merciful 

merciless 


merry hearty 
merrily heartily 
merriment heartiness 


wearily 
weariness 





624. Study Rule 67. Write three times each the infinitive 
and the present participle of each of the following verbs 
(e.g., lie, lying): lie, die, tie, vie. 

625. Study Rule 68. Write the infinitive and the present 
participle of each of the following verbs (e.g., study, study- 
ing): study, hurry, tarry, worry, carry, scurry, bury, steady. 

626. Study Rule 69. Write the following words together 
with their derivatives in ness (e.g., sudden, suddenness): 
sudden, rotten, sodden, stubborn, drunken, wooden r sullen. 

627. Study Rule 70. Write each of the following words, 
together with its derivative in ly (e.g., final, finally): final, 
usual, actual, continual, principal, practical, casual, general, 
oral, original, occasional, special, partial. 

628. Study Rules 71 and 72. Write each of the following 
words together with its derivative in ally (e.g., accident, 
accidentally): accident, incident, heroic, poetic, dramatic, 
prosaic, occasion, intention, artistic, exception. 

629. Rule 73. Write the singular and the plural of each 
of the following nouns (e.g., bead, beads ; box, boxes): bead, 
road, leak, freak, wheel, pail, beam, seam, screen, steep, leap, 
paradox, hiss, heir, fair, repair, pass, glass, beet, boat, boot, 
flash, crash, cow, row, crow, dish, box, tract, train, group, 
need, accent, shoulder, offer, answer, manner, murmur, pas- 
senger, messenger, chamber, invader, wonder, travel, equal, 
quarrel, rebel, display, play, array, view, joy, boy, law, saw. 

630. Study Rule 74. Write the following words together 
with their plurals (e.g., leaf, leaves): leaf, thief, sheaf, wife, 
life, knife, half, calf, wolf, loaf, shelf, elf, self 

631. Study Rule 77. Write the indicative present first 
and third persons singular of the following verbs (e.g., refer, 
refers): refer, deem, claim, gleam, disdain, feel, squeal, pass, 
rush, differ, assign, toss, gash, miss, fix, eat, twist, repair, 



Lying etc. 



Studying 
etc. 



Sudden- 
ness etc. 



Adverbs 
in lly : 

Finally 
etc. 

Acciden- 
tally etc. 



Plurals in 
s and es 



Plurals in 
ves 



Present 
third 
singulars 
in s and es 



302 



EXERCISES 



The adjec- 
tive end- 
ing ful 



The adjec- 
tive end- 
ing ous 



Inflection 
of verbs 
in le 



Already 
etc. 



Accept 
and except 



Advice, 
advise, 
device, 
devise 



seem, succeed, proceed, train, grab, happen, hear, heed, open, 
perform, reform, conform, interrupt, meet, need, repeat, 
absorb, accept, appear, appoint, discern, distract, direct, 
attract, drown, govern, ascend, descend, attempt, connect, 
erect, exclaim, proclaim, complain, exhaust, exist, explain, 
answer, falter, offer, chamber, consider, remember, wonder, 
refer, confer, occur, defer, transfer, infer, prefer, propel, 
quarrel, equal, travel, view, enjoy, allow, display, play, say, 
obey, saw, sew, sow, row, crow, tow, annoy, destroy. 

632. Study Rule 78. Write the following adjectives, ob- 
serving that in all, the ending is not full, but ful : useful, 
beautiful, careful, merciful, joyful, awful, skillful, hopeful, 
vengeful, mournful, cheerful, wonderful, delightful. 

633. Study Rule 79. Write the following words, observ- 
ing that in all, the ending is not us, but ous: humorous, 
courageous, plenteous, mischievous, simultaneous, miscel- 
laneous, pretentious, luminous, ridiculous, grievous, glori- 
ous, bounteous, outrageous, hideous, heinous, trotiblous, 
garrulous, bibulous. 

634. Study Rules 80a and 80 b. Write the infinitive, the 
present participle, the present third singular, and the past of 
each of the following verbs (e.g., settle, settling, settles, 
settled): settle, handle, enable, cradle, ennoble, saddle, 
tremble, twinkle, sparkle, tumble, wrestle, paddle, whistle, 
huddle, fondle, dazzle. 

635. Study Rule 82. Write each of the following words 
three times, observing that in all of them the prefix is al : 
already, altogether, almost, also, always. 

636. Study Rule 85. (a) Write the following sentences, 

filling the blanks with accept or except: 1. I would 

the offer, for my religious scruples. 2. He is the best 

pianist in Europe ; I do not even Liszt. 3. Most of 

the rebels were offered pardon and ed it ; but the 

leaders were ed from the offer. 4. He burned all 

the household goods, not ing even the heirlooms. 

5. Why did you Charles from your invitation ? He 

wouldn't have ed anyway. 

(6) Write five short sentences using accept and five using 
except. 

637. Study Rule 86. (a) Write the following sentences, 

filling the blanks with advice or advise : 1. I you to 

buy. 2. He was d not to take the lawyer's ■ . 

3. A message from his r brought important — s. 



SPELLING 



303 



-d me, and I thought it best to follow his - 



4. He- 

Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with de- 
vice or devise : 5. It is an ingenious , but can't we 

a better one ? 6. Many s were employed. 

7. He d a machine. 8. The s and desires of 

our hearts. 

(b) Write five short sentences using advice, five using 
advise, five using device, and five using devise. 

638. Study Rule 87. (a) Write the following sentences, 
filling the blanks with affect or effect: 1. That statement is 

true, but it does not the case. 2. The failure of the 

bank did not his equanimity. 3. The admonition of 

the dean had a good . 4. The generals ed a 

junction, but this action had no on the enemy. 

5. His brooding — : ed his health. 6. The utmost efforts 

of his physician could not a cure. 

(b) Write five short sentences using affect, five using the 
noun effect, and five using the verb effect. 

639. Study Rule 88. (a) Write the following sentences, 
filling the blanks with already or all ready. After each sen- 
tence state in parenthesis the construction ] of the expression 

supplied. 1. the train was moving. 2. Are you 

dressed ? 3. Well, fellows, are you ? 4. The 

milkman has gone. 5. We are to start. 



6. The carpenter is 
is formed. 



Affect 
and effect 



Already 
and all 



to begin his work. 7. My plan 

Is my room ? 9. The house 

, but no guests had arrived. 10. Preparations 
complete, but no guests had come. 



was — 
were — 

(b) Write five sentences using already, and five using all 
ready. 

640. See Angle and Angel on page 37. Write. five short 
sentences using angel and five using angle. 

641. See Clothes and Cloths on page 40. Write five short 
sentences using cloths and ten using clothes. 

642. See Costume and Custom on page 42. Write five 
sentences using costume, five using custom, and five using 
accustomed. 

643. See Drown on page 44. Write three sentences using 
drown, three using drowns, five using drowning, and five 
using drowned. 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



Angel and 
angle 

Clothes 
and cloths 

Costume 

and 

custom 

Drown 

and 

drowned 



304 



EXERCISES 



Formerly 
and 

formally 

Hear and 
here 



Incident 



Later and 
latter 



644. See Formerly and Formally on page 46. Write ten 

short sentences using formerly and ten using formally. 



645. See Hear and Here on page 48. 
using hear and ten using here. 



Write ten sentences 



646. See Incident on page 49. Write ten short sentences 
using incident and five using incidents. 



647. See Later and Latter on page 50. 
sentences using later and five using latter. 



Write five short 



Lead and 648. Study Rule 89. The principal parts of lead are lead, 
led led, led. (a) Write the following sentences, filling the blanks 

with lead or led : 1. He met me and me in. 2. They 

will us astray, as our friends were astray. 3. It 

was this act that to his success. 4. . I was to 

think that this would to misfortune. 5. If she had 



asked me to 



-, I should have 



(b) Write five short sentences using lead and ten using 
led. 



Lose and 
loose 



Fast and 
passed 

Principal 

and 

principle 



649. Study Rule 90. Lose is a verb ; loose is an adjec- 
tive, (a) Write the following sentences, filling the blanks 
with lose or loose. Before ing drop the final e of the word 

supplied. 1. The screw is . 2. Don't it. 

3. If it gets , you will it. 4. His coat is 

— r than yours, but mine is the - — st of all. 



his 

6. Turn him 



change, the 



-jointed 



■ ; there's no danger 



5. By ing 

traveler suffered. 

of ing him. 

(b) Write five short sentences using lose, five using losing, 
five using. loose (adjective). 

650. See Passed and Past on page 53. Write ten sen- 
tences using passed and ten using past. 

651. Study Rule 93. (a) Write the following sentences, 

filling the blanks with principal or principle : 1. The 

street runs north. 2. The of the school was a 

man of strong s. 3. The involved is what 

I ly object to. 4. It was against his s to use 

more than the interest ; the — — he kept intact. 5. His 



occupation was to master the 



-s of geometry. 



(&) Write five sentences using principal correctly and 
five using principle correctly. 



SPELLING 



305 



652. Study Rule 04. Write the following words, observ- Proceed, 

ing the variations in the spelling of the last syllable : precede, 1 

etc 
precede proceed (but procedure) supersede 

recede exceed 

concede succeed 

intercede 



653. Study Rule 05. Write five short sentences using 
precede, live using proceed, five using preceding, and five 
using proceeding. 



654. See Quiet and Quite on page 55. 
tences using quiet and five using quite. 

655. 



Write five sen- 



Study Rule 96. 


Copy the 


Celia 


receive 


Ce/i'a 


beZieve 


Celia 


deceive 


Celia 


re//eve 


Celia 


conceive 


Celia 


perceive 



receipt 

belief 

deceit 

relief 

conceit 



656. See Than and Then on page 60. Write ten sen- 
tences using than and ten using then. 

657. See Their and There on page 60. Write five sen- 
tences using their, five using there in the sense of in that 
place, and five using there as an adverbial expletive. 1 

658. Study Rule 07. Too is an adverb ; it means exces- 
sively (as tk He is too weak") or also. To is a preposition, 
and also the sign of the infinitive. Two is a number ( = 2). 
Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with too, to, 
or two : 1. It is weak withstand win- 
ters. 2. He thought the men were harsh, and 

I thought so . 3. say that, is say a 

thing with meanings. 4. He was miles from 

home and was hungry . 5. I ■ wish dis- 
pute your — — statements. 6. — - take one would be 



uncharitable ; it would be cruel take . 

7. Come with ycv? I don't want . 8. I suppose I 

ought go, 7 :ut I hate . 

659. Study Rule 07. Write fifteen short sentences using 
in each, respectively, one of the following words preceded 
by too (e.g., " The odor is too sweet for my taste "J : sweet, 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



Meaning 
of proceed 

and pre- 
cede 

Quiet and 
quite 



Receive, 

believe, 

etc. 



Than and 
then 

Their and 
there 



Too, to, 
and two 



Too 



306 



EXERCISES 



Woman 

and 

women 

All right 



Disappear 
and dis- 
appoint 



Professor 
etc. 



Dictation 
exercises 
in 
spelling 






long, sad, far, loud, heavy, cold, discouraging, much, vio- 
lently, close, weak, many, dark, parsimonious. 

660. See Woman and Women on page 62. Write five 
short sentences using woman and five using women. 

661. Study Rule 83. Write ten sentences using the ex- 
pression all right. 

662. Write the following words, observing that in each 
the prefix is not diss, but dis : dis-appear, dis-appoint, dis- 
grace, dis-close, dis-gorge, dis-honor, dis-band, dis-locate, 
dis-dain, dis-turb. 

663. Write the following words, observing that in each, the 
prefix is not prof but pro : pro-fessor, pro-fession, profes- 
sional, pro-fessionally , pro-fessorial, ' pro-fess, pro-fessed, 
pro-vide, pro-found, pro-voke, pro-tect, pro-nounce, pro- 
ceed, pro-boscis. 

664. Sentences to be written at dictation. 1. The embar- 
rassed sophomore proceeded with his impromptu speech. 
2. The principal danger, he believed, was that his partner 
would lose his self-possession. 3. He was not surprised ; 
similar incidents had often occurred formerly. 4. The 
courageous villain proved equal to the occasion. 5. The 
prisoner, after bribing the guard, slipped out and disap- 
peared across the boundary. 6. The officer rapidly pursued 
him, firing as he ran. 7. Too much riding and driving had 
a bad effect on his studies. 8. Occasionally he committed 
deceitful and unbecoming acts in the course of his business. 
9. The operation of the new rule will affect the legal profes- 
sion beneficially. 10. The necessity of thorough preparation 
will incidentally have a good effect on the law schools. 
11. Macaulay is recognized universally as the equal of any 
preceding writer of history. 12. An awkward question of 
privilege arising, the matter was referred temporarily to a 
committee. 13. The effect of the young orator's speech was 
instantaneous. 14. The village is laid out symmetrically 
according to a plan similar to that already referred to. 
15. There are numerous specimens of his writing in the 
libraries of all the principal cities. 16. He who relies on 
the word of a sophomore or a professor is sure to be disap- 
pointed. 17. Don't lose sight of the principles of grammar. 
18. The principal of the grammar school advised his boys 
to arrange occasionally for games with teams in neighboring 
cities. 19. After conferring with the principal creditors, 
I was led to believe that they were planning to bring suit for 



COMPOUND WORDS 



307 



the payment of both the interest and the principal of the 
mortgage. 20. I could not keep any discipline among them, 
surprised and terrified as they were. I therefore divided 
them into two separate parties and led them to a quiet place 
where they might have an opportunity to recover their self- 
possession. 21. Without stopping to care for their dying 
comrades, the forty guardsmen, ill equipped as they were, 
went running up the sloping field, hemmed in the sentries, 
seized the outposts, and compelled the enemy to surrender. 
22. Proving utterly unmanageable, he was whipped and 
finally expelled. 23. Having examined the case, I feel hope- 
ful for his life ; it must be admitted, however, that he may 
lose an arm. 24. The French messenger hurried on, hoping 
to outstrip the English spy ; but the horse on which the 
latter was riding was comparatively fresh, and soon had dis- 
appeared round a bend in the road. 25. First I tried to 
advise him, but he would take no advice. Later, I applied 
a walking stick to his back. This had a more beneficial 
effect than advice. 26. The priest, placing his hands on the 
altar, murmured some mysterious sentences in the Indian 
language. 27. I perceived that the road led to a dense 
forest. 28. The woman's tears did not affect his decision; 
he still pursued his original purpose. 29. If you happen 
accidentally to lose a receipt, he denies having received the 
money and tries to collect again. I can't conscientiously 
recommend him. 30. The rain was beginning to fall, and 
the lightning flashed continually. 31. The principal street 
of the village is parallel to the railroad. 32. There are few 
writers who have never committed a misspelling. 



Exercises concerning Compound Words 

665. A passage to be written at dictation. Officer Calla- 
han, a man of oxlike intellect (indeed, he is very ill educated 
and stupid, although well-meaning, perhaps), arrested my 
well-beloved bulldog, Touch-and-go, to-day, and gave him 
into the hands of Jensen the dog-catcher, who in turn passed 
him on to the pound master. My iron-jawed, short-haired 
favorite, dressed up as usual in his silver-studded collar, but 
wearing no muzzle, was according to his daily custom 
walking statelily down Hill Street. There in her flower gar- 
den Miss Josephine Jones, neat looking and daintily dressed, 
was tending her rosebushes ; with her was her silky-haired, 
chicken-hearted setter, following her with its dovelike eyes 
or sometimes, in its scatter-brained fashion, chasing a butter- 
fly. As Touch-and-go passed by the yard, this empty-headed 
butterfly -chaser danced up to him, leaping over the two-foot 



Dictation 

exercises 

in 

hyphening 

(See Rules 

102-124) 



308 



EXERCISES 



Awhile 
and a 
while 



Sometime 
and some 
time 



wall that borders the yard, and noisily yelping, setter-like, 
to attract the newcomer's attention. This is a well-estab- 
lished fact ; several passers-by saw and have testified that the 
setter was the aggressor. Miss Josephine, terror-stricken, 
raised an outcry, but it was too late ; the setter was already 
fast in the vice-like grip of the bulldog. Now, the last- 
mentioned performer in this little comedy was only try- 
ing to teach the over-familiar puppy dog a much-needed 
lesson in good manners ; but the tender-hearted mistress 
thought that the light-weight was about to be murdered by 
the heavy-weight. She therefore wrung her lily-white hands 
and shouted for the police. Police Officer Callahan, that 
bull-necked, round-bellied, heavy-footed peace-preserver, was 
about half a mile up the street, eating unpaid-for peanuts 
and conversing with a white-aproned nursemaid. With the 
speed of a steam roller and the self-important air of agen- 
eral-in-chief, Callahan drew near and arrested Touch-and-go. 
The setter and his mistress comforted each other for a few 
minutes, and then the first-mentioned resumed his insect- 
chasing, and the second-mentioned her rosebush-tending. 
But, as above stated, Touch-and-go wore no muzzle, therein 
violating our strictly enforced city laws ; so he was turned 
over to the above-mentioned dog-catcher, who, bidding a 
polite good-by to Miss Josephine, took him to the pound. 
I paid a twenty-dollar fine this afternoon and recovered my 
bow-legged hero. To-morrow he will wear that much- 
detested muzzle. 

666. Study Rule 133. Write the following sentences, fill- 
ing each blank with a while or awhile. After each sentence 
state in parenthesis the construction 1 of the expression sup- 
plied. 1. Stay longer. 2. ago there were not 

any houses here. 3. He stood in thought. 4. I'll 

try it for and see how it works. 5. I'll try it . 



Anyway 
and 
any way 



6. You'd better sleep . 

667. Study Rule 134. Write the following sentences, fill- 
ing each blank with some time or sometime. After each sen- 
tence state in parenthesis the construction * of the expression 

supplied. 1. I'll visit you next summer. 2. There 

must have been a volcano here . 3. He came in last 

night and stayed — : with us. 4. Be careful ; 

you'll get caught. 5. He pondered over the matter . 

6. He pondered over the matter for . 7. was 

spent in the examination of the books. 

668. Study Rule 135. Write the following sentences, 
filling each blank with any way or anyway. In parenthesis 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 ff. 



COMPOUND WORDS 



309 



after each sentence, state the construction 1 of the expression 

supplied. 1. you arrange it will suit me. 2. I can't 

explain it in . 3. Well, , what's the difference ? 

4. I don't care, . 5. They could not find to 

gain entrance. 6. I'm not anxious; for, , he knows 

how to swim. 

669. Study Rule 126. Write two short sentences using 
myself, two using himself, two using herself two using itself 
two using themselves, two using oneself two using ourselves, 
two using yourselves. 

670. Study Rules 126, 129. .Write two short sentences 
using whenever, two using wherever, two using whoever, two 
using whomever, two using however, two using whichever, 
two using whosoever. 



Solid: 

Words in 

self 

Words in 
ever 



Write ten short sentences using Together 






671. Study Rule 129. 
together. 

672. Study Rule 129. Write two short sentences using 
together, two using instead, two using moreover, two using 
nevertheless, two using inasmuch, and two using therefore. 

673. Study Rule 132. Write two sentences using every- 
body, two using anybody, two using nobody, and two using 
somebody ; two using every one, two using any one, two using 
no one, and two using some one. 

674. Study Rule 131. Write two sentences using each 
other, two using on the other hand, two using in spite of, 
two using in fact, two using in order. 

675. A passage to be written at dictation. The farm 
where my grandfather and grandmother lived was an alto- 
gether delightful place. Whenever I think of my childhood, 
the picture comes to me of a white farmhouse, a spacious 
yard overshadowed by maples, and bordered by a main high- 
way, a big red barn across the road with a windmill near by. 
This, as every one who lived in the neighborhood knew, was 
Fielding's farm. It was a long way outside the city limits ; 
nevertheless, in spite of the distance, I sometimes walked 
out on a Saturday afternoon — often in fact. Sometimes my 
brother and I went together. We were very fond of each 
other in spite of the difference in oar ages (he was at that 
time forty-one, and I was only twenty-nine), and therefore 
we always enjoyed ourselves very much throughout the 

1 See the Grammatical Vocabulary, pp. 360 if. 



Together, 

instead, 

etc. 

Anybody, 
any one, 
etc. 



Each 
other, 
in order, 
etc. 

Hyphened, 
solid, and 
separate 
to be de- 
termined 
(See Rules 
125-139) 



310 



EXERCISES 



journey. Instead of walking, we could have gone by rail- 
road, for near our house there was a station of the Chalmers- 
ville Road — about two hundred yards, or six hundred feet 
away — six hundred and thirty-four, to be exact ; and there 
was another about three eighths of a mile (that is, about two 
thousand feet, or six hundred and sixty yards) from grand- 
father's house. In fact, whenever the weather looked 
threatening, and every time it was actually raining, and we 
wanted to go out to the farm, we got inside one of those 
somewhat — well, I won't say those cars were dirty, but on 
the other hand, whoever said they were altogether clean 
would be overstating the fact — or perhaps I should say he 
was stating only one half of it. But where was I ? Oh yes ; 
we would take the train. Well, the train was always un- 
bearably slow ; moreover some one had to be put off at 
every station, and somebody had to be taken on at every 
other ; and furthermore the engine could not go three 
quarters of a mile without stopping to take water. In spite 
of the boasted reputation of the Chalmersville Railroad, I 
believe that any time I cared to try, I could outstrip one of 
those trains on a bicycle. However, I digress. We took 
the train, I say, and in order to pass the time in some way 
(any way would do), we amused ourselves by sitting upright 
and staring out the window at whatever we might see. 
Not altogether uplifting, you say ? No ; nevertheless, it was 
better than getting wet. It was all right to walk to grand- 
father's when the w T eather was good, but not in the rain. 
As I said, however, we usually walked. Whenever I think 
of those walks we took together, I ask myself whether I 
should enjoy them again. And although I am now an old 
and, as you see, somewhat garrulous fellow (I am almost 
seventy-three now), nevertheless I am going back to the old 
homestead some day, and am going to try walking (all by 
myself this time) to grandfather's farm. 



Exercise concerning Abbreviations 

Ahbrevia- 676. Study Rules 140, 141. Rewrite the following sen- 
tions to be tences, substituting complete words for the improper abbre- 
ehminated yiations : 1. Walking north on Hamilton St., one sees the 
Schoolcraft Bldg. 2. On Aug. 15 I took the boat for South 
Haven, Mich. 3. I was employed as a shipping clerk by 
the Arbuckle Coffee Co. in Boston. 4. He got employment 
on the ranch of Witting Bros, in the southern part of Neb. 
5. For four years I was employed by the Modern Steel 
Structural Co. in Waukesha, Wis. This co. secured the con- 
tract for the Majestic Bldg. in Milwaukee. 6. At Redwing, 



SYLLABICATION 



311 



Minn., I rec'd my early education. 7. In the spring of 1905 
I obtained a position with the Sunset Telephone Co. and held 
it until Sept. of that year, working chiefly in northern Cal. 
Then I went to Portland, Ore., and took in the Fair. 
8. Among the charms of Hancock Co., Col., is a sublime 
view of the distant, snowy peaks of the Rocky Mts. 9. In 
Aug., 1907, 1 attended a co. fair in Pekin, 111., and saw Dan 
Patch win a race. 



Exercise in the Representation of Numbers 

677. Sentences to be written at dictation. 1. There are 
72,503 grammar schools in the United States. 2. He walked 
a mile and one eighth in twenty-six minutes. 3. The thirty- 
fourth name happened to be Smith. 4. It is two hundred 
miles away. 5. The two-hundred-and-seventh day of this 
year will be Friday; 6. The veto was overruled by a three- 
fourths majority. 7. Three fourths of the people there are 
Italians. 8. The three-mile march was too much for Abner. 
9. The proportions are as follows : Jews, 20 per cent; Greeks, 
10 per cent ; Portuguese, 5 per cent ; Italians, 25 per cent ; 
Germans, 40 per cent. 10. From June 17, 1906, to May 6, 
1908, I lived at 23 Covington Place. 11. On the seventh 
page I found a reference to page 72 of volume 3. 12. At 
nine o'clock on next Friday night, August 23, I shall be 
twenty-one years old. I shall then be in possession of sixty 
thousand dollars, of which I will give fifteen cents to charity. 
13. Thirty-four thousand, six hundred and eighty-one dol- 
lars and twenty cents is the sum he spent during the Christ- 
mas vacation. 14. Fourteen thousand, five hundred and 
one men are employed here. 



Figures or 
words to 
be deter- 
mined 
(See Rules 
136-139, 
149-167) 



Exercises in Syllabication 

678. Study Rules 173-183. Write each of the following 
words on two lines, showing how it may be correctly divided 
at the end of a line. For example : 



re- 
member 

in- 
complete 



remem- 
ber 

incom- 
plete 



A. gradual, genuine, signal, crimson, ridiculous, cholera, 
popular, optimist, emphasis, comparison, philosophy, quarrel, 
censure, recognize, depression, melancholy, deduction, 
inference, gorgeous, purple, frivolous, summon, energetic, 
scientific, engineering, geniality, artificiality, hypocrite, 



Syllabica- 
tion: 



Miscel- 
laneous 



312 



EXERCISES 



Syllabica- 
tion: 



Prefixes 



Suffixes 



Doubled 
conso- 
nants 



Digraphs 



condemnation, automatic, unconscious, prominence, 
happiness, justifiable, immeasurable, innumerable, intelligent, 
comparatively, contemporary, elaborate, suspicion, 
manufacture, civilization, hostility, unfriendliness, 
conjunction, co?itradiction, vulgarity, attempt, revenge, 
weakness, account. 

B. depict, entire, expend, admire, convene, detest, inspire, 
intervene, obscure, postpone, submit, superstitious, expound, 
beguile, forlorn, address, endure, conscript, catalogue, 
epitaph, detail, infuse, intersperse, oblige, postscript, object, 
prevail, subject, anagram, explain, becoming, epigram, 
advert, ■ confuse, devotion, increase, interesting, oblique, 
provoke, prescribe, substitute, explicit, behave, programme, 
forgive, impossible, adduce, impose, undutiful, un?iatural, 
infrequent, unnecessary, existence, behind, exquisite, 
untamed, inaccessible. 

C. kindly, shaving, peaceable, preferment, healthful, 
sweeter, pianist, heartless, payable, heaviest, goodness, 
wholesome, wholly, bowing, serviceable, winsome, 
instrument, mournful, commitment, iveaker, thoughtless, 
organist, wearisome, perishable, wretched, blackest, 
delightful, brightness, preference, homeless, cruelly, actually, 
tuneful, blooming, convertible, blithesome, unnamable, 
discernment, harmful, sacrament, colder, friendless, warmest, 
daintiness, darkness, violinist, fearless. 

D. sinner, flannel, cellar, robber, saddest, goddess, ripple, 
giggle, trammel, carriage, assist, rattan, accede, aggravate, 
session, possession, passion, jabber, accident, affable, traffic, 
allude, illusion, glimmer, runner, slippery, terror, assist, 
pressure, intermittent, commit, battalion, dazzling, gibber, 
flaccid, raddish, stiffen, braggart, distillery, mummery, 
nunnery, horrible, borrow, barrel, fissure, aggressive, 
lissom, Prussian, passive, fitting, flutter. 

E. Catherine, strengthen, splashing, hydrophobia, singing, 
alignment, sioitchboard, doughnut, roughness, bother, 
ruthless, fisherman, cashier, Berkshire, telephone, 
diaphanous, antithesis, Shoshone, clangor, danger, signpost, 
Litchfield, neighbor, coughing, nothing, smother, gathering, 
finishing, paraphrase, wrongful, latchet, ploughman, 
laughter. 



Days and 
months 



Exercises in Capitalizing 

679. Study Rule 184. Write a composition about a cal- 
endar, using the names of all the days of the week, all the 
months, and the four seasons. 



CAPITALIZING 



313 



680. Study Rule 198. Write the following sentences, fill- 
ing the blanks with English, French, German, Latin, Greek, 
Dutch, Indian, or Spanish : 1. In the battle the cap- 
tain met a - - corporal. 2. Some - - and - 



Race and 
language 



books entertained him, while he drank wine and 

smoked a pipe. 3. The ships were destroyed 

by the , assisted by their allies. 

Write two short sentences, using the word Greek, two 
using Latin, two using Italian, two using Indian, two using 
French, two using German, two using English, two 
using Irish, two using Dutch, two using Norwegian, and 
two using Russian. 



681. An exercise to be written at dictation. My friend 
Professor Cincinnatus Jones gives instruction in oratory, 
history, algebra, and swimming in the Kansas City College 
of Agriculture. Many young men from the West and the 
South come under his enlightening influence every year. The 
president of the agricultural college just referred to secured 
Professor Jones when the latter was employed by the De- 
partment of Agriculture in Washington. The Secretary of 
Agriculture, by the way, was a Democrat, as was the patri- 
otic President in whose Cabinet he had the honor of sitting; 
the Professor also happened to belong to the Democratic 
Party. Now, the president of the college — President Fran- 
cis X. Fitzgibbons, Ph.D., LL.D. — went up to Jefferson City, 
the capital of the state, to consult with the governor. That 
staunch old Republican, Governor Mannington, was in office 
at that time. He was visiting ex-Governor Hemstead on 
Clinton Avenue when President Fitzgibbons arrived. The 
president took a street car and went straight to the house 
where the governor was. Now, the mayor of the city, a 
Socialist, several members of the state senate and house, 
most of them Prohibitionists, the chief of police, a Populist, 
and seven aldermen of various political faiths happened to be 
calling on the ex-governor at the same time. In walks 
President Fitz and says, 

" Governor, will you help me get Jones for a professor- 
ship in my faculty ? " . 

"Jones?" says the governor. "Major General Jones, 
formerly pastor of the First Baptist Church ? " 

u No. I mean C. Jones, assistant clerk in the Department 
of Agriculture, author of How to Make Corn Grow and also 
of Why I Am a Bee-keeper." 

11 Oh yes, that clever Scotchman. His grandfather was a 
colonel in the Mexican War, wasn't he ? M 

11 Yes, and beloved by all his regiment — privates, corpo- 



Dictation 
exercise 
in capi- 
talization 
(See Rules 
184-202) 



314 



EXERCISES 



rals, sergeants, lieutenants, captains, and majors alike. And 
his grandson is worthy of him. But Governor, I don't want 
to conceal the fact that he is a Democrat." 

" I swear by the Book, Doctor," said the governor, "I 
don't care if he is the chief doorkeeper of Tammany Hall, 
on Fourteenth Street, New York City ; I will get him for 
you." 

At that, all the assembled men clapped their hands, and a 
German politician, a member of the city council and the 
proprietor of a vaudeville theater on East Twenty-ninth 
Street, remarked that this was a second Missouri Compro- 
mise. 

Next day — it was Friday — Governor Mannington went 
east to Washington and lifted Jones bodily from the govern- 
ment service. He came west again in no time, bringing the 
new professor with him, on the Santa Fe Railroad. Jones 
spent the summer in preparing his first lectures, and began 
his professional duties in the following autumn. 



Literary 
titles 



Discrimi- 
nation of 
end and 
interior 
punctua- 
tion 



Exercise in Italicizing 

682. Study Rules 202, 216-222. Write the following pas- 
sage, capitalizing and italicizing correctly : 

Dicken's a tale of two cities is to me more interesting 
than Hugo's the toilers of the sea. But Scott's the talisman 
is better than either. The New York sun and the journal 
of psychology are less interesting than the damnation of 
Theron Ware by Harold Frederick. As for Burn's the 
cotter's Saturday night — well, Dombey and son is far 
superior. But I fear that, like the porter in Macbeth, I am 
rambling. 

Exercises in Punctuation 

Discrimination of End and Interior Punctuation 

683. Study Rules 243, 245, 246. The following is the 
Primary Rule of Punctuation : The period should be used 
(as a separate mark) only to separate one complete inde- 
pendent predication from another ; the comma should be 
used only to separate one member from another within a 
complete independent predication. Tell whether this rule is 
observed or violated in each of the expressions below. In 
answering the question in regard to each expression, use the 
following form : 

The first expression ("It offers" etc.) is a single com- 
plete independent predication; its subject is "it"; its 
predicate is " offers " ; "at the same time affording oppor- 



PUNCTUATION 



315 



tunity for literary study 1 ' is a participial phrase, not a 
complete independent predication. The period, therefore, 
violates the Primary Rule of punctuation. The expression 
should be punctuated as follows: "It offers a course for 
those who wish to study painting, at the same time afford- 
ing opportunity for literaiy study." 

The second expression (" The care n etc.) is a single com- 
plete independent predication; its subject is "care"; its 
predicate is "requires 1 '; "while electric lights give the 
housekeeper no trouble " is a dependent clause. The period 
after " labor," therefore, violates the Primary Rule. The 
expression should be punctuated as follows: " The care of 
oil lamps requires every day some disagreeable labor, while 
electric lights give the housekeeper no trouble." 

The third expression ("The winter" etc.) is composed of 
two complete independent predications: (1) " The winter 
has not been very severe" (subject, "winter" ; predicate, 
"has been") and (2) "the temperature has averaged 
forty-one degrees" (subject, "temperature"; predicate, 
"has averaged"). Therefore the comma after "severe" 
violates the Primary Rule of punctuation. The expression 
should be punctuated thus : " The winter has not been very 
severe. The temperature has averaged forty-one degrees." 

The fourth expression ("That may be true" etc.) is a 
single complete independent predication. It is a compound 
predication, composed of the independent predication "That 
may be true " (subject, " that " ; predicate, " may be ") and 
the independent predication "it does not affect the case" 
(subject, "it"; predicate, "does affect"), joined by the 
conjunction "but." Since it is a single complete indepen- 
dent predication, the comma after "true" conforms to the 
Primary Rule. 

In the same way comment on expressions 5-24 following, 
and rewrite all that you find incorrect. 

1. It offers a course for those who wish to study painting. 
At the same time affording opportunity for literary study. 
[Right or wrong?] 

2. The care of oil lamps requires every day some disagree- 
able labor. While electric lights give the housekeeper no 
trouble. [Right or wrong ?] 

3. The winter has not been very severe, the temperature 
has averaged forty-one degrees. [Right or wrong ?] 

4. That may be true, but it does not affect the case. 
[Right or wrong ?] 

5. I regard the measure as the best that could be adopted 
under the circumstances. Though it must doubtless offend 
some people. [Right or wrong?] 



Discrimi- 
nation of 
end and 
interior 
punctua- 
tion 



316 



EXERCISES 



Discrimi- 
nation of 
end and 
interior 
punctua- 
tion 



6. I think the plan you propose is by far the best one to 
follow. Though all the others oppose it I will give it my full 
support. [Right or wrong ?] 

7. Mr. Hathaway was usually called "the Indian" by his 
familiar friends. The name being suggested by his dark 
complexion and his gravity. [Right or wrong?] 

8. The family living on the ground floor had to keep the 
walk clear of snow during the winter, while those who lived 
in the upper apartments were free of any such obligation. 
[Right or wrong?] 

9. The family on the ground floor had to clear the snow 
away. No such obligation was imposed on those in the 
upper apartments. [Right or wrong?] 

10. In all his conduct Hector seems to be actuated by two 
noble ambitions. To defend his country and to be held in 
honor by his countrymen. [Right or wrong?] 

11. She busied herself for a while in putting the goods in 
order. The bottles on the lower shelf and the boxes on the 
second. [Right or wrong?] 

12. I found it very difficult to use these skates, the blades 
were much longer than those I had become accustomed to. 
[Right or wrong?] 

18. She found on her arrival that Gabriel had departed 
only a few hours before. This was very disheartening news. 
[Right or wrong ?] 

14. He was surprised to receive a letter from the dean 
saying that he had failed in history and German. Also that 
his standing in all the rest of his studies was very poor. 
[Right or wrong ?] 

15. A letter from the dean was brought to him at the 
breakfast table, this letter informed him that he would not 
be allowed to remain in college. [Right or wrong ?] 

16. The legacy came at a most fortunate time, it enabled 
him to satisfy some particularly importunate creditors. 
Also furnishing him with the money necessary for his 
journey. [Right or wrong ?] 

17. They talked of all that had occurred during the past 
six years. Particularly of the recent achievements of their 
classmates. [Right or wrong ?] 

18. Farrar found that during his absence many changes 
had occurred in the circumstances of his old friends. Almost 
all of whom had either married or died. [Right or wrong?] 

19. He found that many changes had occurred during his 
absence, almost all his old friends had married and now had 
homes of their own. The only exceptions being Wickham 
and McDonald. [Right or wrong?] 

20. His request will surely not be granted. Such requests 
have been always refused in the past. [Right or wrong?] 



PUNCTUATION 



317 



21. His request will surely not be granted, the rules of the 
college expressly exclude freshmen from the course he 
wishes to take. [Right or wrong ?] 

22. I agreed to present his request to the committee and 
to urge that it be granted. At the same time telling him 
frankly that there was little hope of the request's being 
granted. [Right or wrong ?] 

23. She found on her table a letter written on blue paper 
and addressed to her sister. The very letter which her sister 
had been expecting and which the servant had brought here 
by mistake. [Right or wrong ?] 

24. She found on her table a letter addressed to her sister, 
the servant had evidently brought'it here by mistake. [Right 
or wrong ?] 

End Punctuation 

684. Study Rules 243, 245, 246, 257. 258. Write the fol- 
lowing passage, putting a period at the end of every complete 
independent predication, and capitalizing the word following 
every period : 

The toiDman who had hold of the upper corner of the top- 
sail lost his balance he was seen to totter the crowd on the 
quay uttered a cry he turned around the yard but caught 
hold of the footrope as he passed it and remained hanging 
by it the sea was below him at a dizzy depth and the shock 
of his fall had given the footrope a violent swinging motion 
the man swung at the end of the rope like a stone in a sling 
to go to his assistance would be running a frightful risk not 
one of the sailors dared to venture it all at once a man could 
be seen climbing up the shrouds with the agility of a tiger 
cat his red clothes showed that he was a convict in a second 
he was upon the yard he stood an instant looking around 
him the crowd then saw him run along the yard on reaching 
the end he fastened to it the rope he had brought let it hang 
down and then began going down hand over hand ten thou- 
sand eyes were fixed on the two swinging men not a cry not 
a word could be heard every person held his breath as if 
afraid of increasing in the slightest degree the wind that 
swung the two men the convict managed to get close to the 
sailor then clinging to the rope with one hand and working 
with the other he fastened the rope around the sailor at 
length he was seen to climb back to the yard and haul the 
sailor up he supported him there for a moment to let him 
regain his strength and then took him in his arms and car- 
ried him along the yard to the cap and thence to the top 
where he left him with his comrades the convict began to 
descend immediately to rejoin his gang all eyes followed him 



Discrimi- 
nation of 
end and 
interior 
punctua- 
tion 



Periods 
and capi- 
tals to be 
supplied 



318 



EXERCISES 



at one moment the spectators felt afraid for they fancied 
they saw him hesitate and totter all at once the crowd 
uttered a terrible cry the convict had fallen into the sea four 
men hastily got into a boat the crowd encouraged them all 
felt anxious again the convict did not come to the surface he 
disappeared without making a ripple as if he had fallen into 
a tank of oil they dragged for him but in vain they searched 
till nightfall but did not rind his body. 



Periods 685. Study Rules 243. 245. 24(1. 257, 258. Write the fol- 

and capi- lowing passage, putting a period at the end of every complete 
tals to be independent predication, and capitalizing the word following 
supplied eV ery period. 

Suddenly he felt his arm grasped.a feeling of horror swept 
over him* some living thing ,thin rough, flat , icy, and slimy, 
from the depth of the cavity, had twined itself round his 
arm its pressure was like that of a strap being drawn tight - 
in less than a second something had closed round his wrist, 
he drew back hastily, but the power of motion had almost 
left him die was nailed to the spot, with his left hand he 
grasped his knife which he had held between his teeth and 
setting his back to the rockmiade a desperate effort to with- 
draw his arm. he only succeeded in loosening the deadly 
clasp for a moment.it immediately tightened again, a second 
object, long and pointed. issued from the cavity it appeared 
for a moment to lick Gilliatt's naked chest then it wound 
itself around him. at the same time a terrible sense of pain 
compelled every muscle of his body to quiver. a third whip- 
like shape issued from the rock and lashed his body suddenly, 
it fixed itself upon him as firmly as the others had done a 
fourth object >this one with the swiftness of an arrow, darted 
toward his stomach and clasped it tightly, it was impossible 
to tear away these four slimy bands >they enlaced his body 
immovably adhering by a number of suckers. a fifth long 
slimy object glided from the cavity* it passed by the others 
and wound itself around Gilliatt's chest . these whiplike 
ribbons were pointed at the end they grew broader like the 
blade of a sword toward the hilt, all five evidently sprang 
from one center. they crept and glided over Gilliatt-he felt 
their strange pressures he seemed to feel the suction of 
many miniature mouths these shifted their positions from 
time to time suddenly a huge slimy mass round and flattened, 
issued from the cavity- it was the center to which these five 
limbs were attached like spokes of a wheel, on the opposite 
side of this center Gilliatt saw the commencement of three 
other limbs .the ends of these three were concealed beneath 
the rock, in the middle of the slimy mass were two eyes.these 



PUNCTUATION 



319 



eyes were fixed on Gilliatt he knew that he was in the 
clutches of a devilfish. 



686. Study Rules 2G3-275. Write the following ex- 
pressions, placing a semicolon after the first predication in 
each: 1. You have had a temptation I will do you the justice to 
suppose it was a strong one. 2. The money drawer was open 
it suggested a means of escape. 3. John was not interested 
in this talk he stuck to his work and said nothing. 4. There 
was much to be done my bag was still to be racked and 
several good-by calls must be made. 5. My correspondent 
happened to know Nicholson he and Nicholson were mem- 
bers of the Cliquot Club. 0. He was at home again pres- 
ently he would see his father. 7. My master is not in sir 
he is staying at his house in Murrayfield. 8. He can't be 
rich no man gets rich at that trade. 9. My visit was unfor- 
tunately timed the lady it appeared was undergoing a shampoo. 
10. The lodge seemed deserted not a light could be seen in 
any window. 11. He knocked there was no answer. 12. A 
lighted candle stood on the gravel walk it threw sparkles on 
the holly bushes. 13. He rose to go this was evidently no place 
for him. 14. I have not come to amuse you I have come to 
tell you some plain facts. 15. The gentleman has spoken of 
the easy way let us now consider the just way. lb*. You 
are rich and comfortable your children have Sunday dresses 
your wife plays on her melodeon. 17. The man who dis- 
covered the telescope was paid with a dungeon the man who 
invented the microscope died of starvation. 

687. Study Kules 263-275. Write the following expres- 
sions, placing a semicolon after the first predication in each : 
18. You can do nothing without honesty get that and you 
get all. 19. They must trust their captain if they distrust 
him they are lost. 20. There is poison in his counsel the 
words he speaks are bitterness. 21. All good architecture is 
the expression of national life it is produced by a prevalent 
national taste. 22. What was play then is no longer 
amusing what was work then is easy now. 23. I have no 
time to do it to-night I will do it in the morning. 24. The 
Greeks worshiped the god of wisdom whatever contended 
against their religion was foolishness. 25. The Spartan 
ideal was subdued strength violence was considered blame- 
worthy. 26. My name is Bagley why do you keep calling 
me Catterwall ? 27. I recognize you now you are the man 
who brought my trunk. 28. lie plunged his hand into his 
pocket there was nothing there. 21). Open the door quick 
it's raining and I'm cold. 30. I can open the door I have a 



Semico- 
lons to be 
inserted 



Semico- 
lons to be 
inserted 



Semico- 
lon- 
groups 
to be 
completed 



320 



EXERCISES 






pass-key. 31. The gas was burning low perfect silence 
reigned. 32. Ask the boy he is old enough to answer for 
himself. 33; Take your hands off what right have you 
to seize me ? 34. Look at that rose its stem is broken. 
35. You have the wrong number please ring off. 

688. Study Kules 263-275. Write the following predica- 
tions, placing a semicolon after each, and making each the 
first of a pair of predications that may properly be sepa- 
rated by a semicolon (e.g., " His decision was entirely right ; 
it was justified both by law and by precedent."). Do not in- 
troduce the second member of any group with and, but, or, 
or for. 1. His decision was entirely right ; . . . 2. I 
have no objection to the plan ; 
est in poetry or music ; . . . 
concern itself with politics ; . 
skate" is bad English ; . . . 
art ; . 
ment ; 



4. 



3. He takes no inter- 
The church should not 
5. "I learned him to 
Punctuation is a difficult 
7. A lawyer would hardly make such an argu- 
8. It is not the mere loss of a few dollars that 



angers me ; . . . 9. A skull is not a pretty object to look 
at ; . . . 10. She is an excellent stenographer ; . . . 

11. In those days few people could read or write ; . . . 

12. Everybody I passed looked at me with an expression of 
curiosity and amusement ; . . . 13. Sometimes I have a 
queer longing for some fantastic sight ; . . . 14. We 
Americans are far different from the Germans ; . . . 
15. Don't be afraid, boy; ... 16. Bring me volume Mot 
-Pal of the encyclopedia ; ... 17. The two brothers also 
quarreled about politics ; . . . 18. He was. very ignorant 
of the usages of good society ; . . . 19. These nails do not 
suit my purpose ; . . . 20. He cannot vote in this district ; 



So 689. Study Rules 279, 280. Write the following expres- 

sions, punctuating correctly: 1. He wanted it to be legible 
and permanent so he wrote in ink. 2. His eyes were still 
unaccustomed to the dim light so he did not notice the 
change. 3. He was in his shirt sleeves as usual so the serv- 
ant asked the visitor to wait a minute. 4. That old sign- 
board was one of the landmarks of the town so they hadn't 
the heart to remove it. 5. The boarders are beginning to 
fall upon the toothpicks so we shall soon have the room to 
ourselves. 6. The rusty hands of the clock marked half 
past four so the editor laid down his pencil. 7. This throe 
of oratory was particularly violent so the speaker took a 
swallow of water before proceeding. 8. The office force re- 
ceived an addition in a few weeks so the burden on each man 



PUNCTUATION 



321 



was lighter. 9. None of the streets in Tecumsehville are 
christened so locations are designated by reference to the in- 
habitants' several abodes. 10. The moon had not yet risen 
so we had to find our way in the dark. 

690. Study Rules 279, 280. Write the following expres- Therefore 
sions, punctuating * correctly : 1. A hot fire is necessary 
therefore a strong draft must be provided. 2. Sickness de- 
layed their moving therefore we did not get the house so 
soon as we had expected. 3. The potato was painfully hot 
therefore her utterance was indistinct. 4. His manners 
were far from polite therefore he was disliked by his com- 
panions. 5. The crowd was thick and the hall was very 
close therefore I feared she would faint. 6. They were 
laughing and talking amicably therefore I was certain their 
quarrel had been made up. 7. I must be at my office in 
twenty minutes therefore we will postpone our consultation. 
8. Parker refused to undertake my case unless I paid in ad- 
vance therefore I went to Carew. 9. It is out of the ques- 
tion for her to see any visitors to-day therefore tell every one 
who calls that she is out. 10. I knew that Collingwood 
was in Boston therefore I was sure the step on the stair was 
not his. 



691. Study Rules 279, 280. Write the following expres- 
sions, punctuating correctly : 1. I objected to his plan how- 
ever since he was bent on it I yielded. 2. What you say 
is true still the thing is impossible. 3. Somehow I feel as if 
.1 had done wrong however I thought I was doing right at 
the time. 4. Cab lamps gleamed there by hundreds and the 
sidewalks were crowded nevertheless I felt very lonely. 
5. The rain beat upon him and the wind howled still he 
marched forward. 6. Most of the time he is very dangerous 
however he has periods of apparent sanity. 7. She was to 
all appearance perfectly polite and agreeable still I knew that 
she was longing for a good opportunity to throttle me. 
8. They were thrown together a great deal during the voyage 
nevertheless Tipworthy kept the secret. 9. Meredith talked 
very little of the affair however I knew it must be in his 
mind constantly. 10. His home was a paradise of beauty 
and luxury still Radford felt vaguely unhappy. 11. I admit 
he has done me many favors nevertheless this offense can- 
cels all my obligations to him. 12. She isn't very neat or 
very thrifty however no one can deny her skill in making 
salads. 13. The transaction looks a little underhand at the 
first glance still those fellows don't deserve open dealing. 
14. She doesn't enjoy symphony concerts very much how- 



Still, 
hoioever, 
never- 
theless 



322 



EXERCISES 



ever I think you can persuade her to go. 15. It is risky to 
stake our chances on so short a campaign nevertheless I am 
in favor of doing it. 16. To go to her assistance meant the 
failure of his most cherished plan still he did not hesitate. 
17. He is polished and eloquent and poetic however I don't 
enjoy his sermons so well as old Mr. Fisbee's. 

Then < 692. Study Rules 279, 280. Write the following expres- 

sions, punctuating correctly : 1. He waited till the train 
came to a stop then he jumped off. 2. The obnoxious 
Beaurepaire at last walked off the stage then the hisses 
ceased. 3. He went below and lit the fuse then he returned 
to the deck. 4. The meerschaum finally becomes saturated 
with nicotine then there is less danger of breaking it. 
5. The clock of St. Basil's tolled midnight then Tobenski 
softly descended. 6. The knight confessed and received the 
sacrament then he put on his armor. 7. He ran north on 
State Street for a few blocks then he turned into an alley. 
8. He questioned us closely about what we had seen then he 
dismissed us. 9. The smoke at length cleared away then 
Lestang saw that the Englishman had struck his flag. 
10. He saw her safely inside the door then he ran back to 
the scene of action. 



Otherwise 



Miscel- 
laneous 
conjunc- 
tive 
adverbs 



693. Study Rules 279, 280. Write the following expres- 
sions, punctuating correctly : 1. You will please keep your 
hands up Mr. Huish otherwise I shall be compelled to shoot. 
2. He must be very generous otherwise he would not have 
relinquished his claim. 3. I believed he was honest other- 
wise I should not have delivered the packet to him. 4. If 
he speaks good English he may have the position otherwise 
we don't want him. 5. He is very agreeable when he can 
have his own way otherwise he is odious. 6. Of course it 
is profitable otherwise why should Wilton take such interest 
in it ? 7. He must have been present all the time otherwise 
how could he know these details ? 8. Our representative 
should be well dressed otherwise he will be at a disadvantage 
with competing salesmen. 9. Come at once if I telegraph 
otherwise wait for me. 10. I shall be glad to subscribe if it 
is a Democratic paper otherwise I must decline. 

694. Study Rules 279, 280. Write the following expres- 
sions properly punctuated: 1. These screws control the 
reticule hence they are called reticule screws. 2. I objected 
to the plan however since he was bent on it I yielded. 3. A 
hot fire is necessary therefore a strong draft must be pro- 
vided. 4. The wood had been injured by warping moreover 



PUNCTUATION 



323 



the metal parts were badly rusted. 5. Sickness delayed 
their moving therefore we did not get the house so soon as 
we had planned. 6. What you say is true nevertheless the 
thing is impossible. 7. The meerschaum becomes finally 
saturated with nicotine then there is less danger of its break- 
ing. 8. All the cracks were filled with tow thus the craft 
was made seaworthy. 

695. Study Rules 279, 280. Write the following expres- 
sions, punctuating correctly: 1. She never laughed nor 
even smiled moreover her conversation was always of a 
melancholy tone. 2. She has conversed with Mirabeau 
hence she must be very old. 3. She wished my father to be 
informed accordingly I wrote to him that evening. 4. He 
continually reproached her and she was always offended 
at his reproaches thus their friendship rapidly grew cold. 
5. I saw no reasonfor declining his invitation besides I en- 
joyed his society and wished to be with him longer. 0. He 
is a graduate of Oxford moreover he has traveled extensively 
on the continent. 7. She now discovered that she had 
dropped the letter somewhere in the street hence she felt 
very anxious lest her destination should be found out. 
8. Neither would yield a step accordingly there was nothing 
to do but draw their swords. 9. He practiced assiduously 
and constantly frequented Vougeot's studio thus he became 
fairly proficient. 10. I know because I saw him go out be- 
sides his room is empty as you see. 11. Chapman wasn't in 
the mood for a picnic moreover he disapproved of picnics 
on Sunday. 12. The chevalier has disavowed his claim 
hence the last difficulty is removed. 13. Alexander was 
sure he could persuade the old lady accordingly he called 
on her next day. 14. Adrienne was blonde, fat, and jolly 
thus she seemed well fitted for her part. 15. The old ser- 
geant had a stock of interesting stories to tell me besides he 
was a good chess-player. 16. He'll get to the crossroads 
before I do still he can't do any harm there. 17. I have 
received no word from him for two weeks however I have no 
anxiety. 18. He is brave and strong and true nevertheless 
he cannot win against such a force as he has to contend with. 



Miscel- 
laneous 
conjunc- 
tive 
adverbs 



696. Study Rules 283-285. Write the following expres- In fact 
sions, punctuating correctly: 1. They were not decadent in 
fact they were eminently robust. 2. It is a most erratic 
production in fact I believe the author is a little insane. 
3. A knife that cuts clumsily will not do in fact it would be 
worse than none at all. 4. It becomes evident that he was 
misjudged in fact he was the victim of unpardonable abuse. 



324 



EXERCISES 



5. He is never satisfied with his good fortune in fact he is 
perpetually throwing his gold into the gutter. 6. There is 
danger that he will not keep the appointment in fact I be- 
lieve he is sure to break it. 7. She pleases me exceedingly 
by her beauty and her accomplishments in fact I intend to 
marry her. 8. I was not afraid to encounter him in fact I 
was rather eager to meet him. 9. The ugliness of some 
regions is not to be entirely deplored in fact it may be a 
source of pleasure. 10. It is a very poor likeness in fact 
it is a caricature rather than a likeness. 11. The place is 
full of marvelous things in fact there's nothing there that 
is not marvelous. 12. To read such books would not be 
a piece of indulgence in fact it would be a highly meritori- 
ous enterprise. 13. The sinfulness of being foolish is much 
overrated in fact I think it is a man's duty to be a fool occa- 
sionally. 14. I like red hair and hooked noses in fact I 
like downright ugliness in the human face. 15. He has 
destroyed his usefulness in fact he has become an actual 
nuisance. 



Virtual 
predi- 
cations 



697. Study Rules 244, 257. Write the italicized expres- 
sions following, punctuating and capitalizing correctly : 

1. [ u I'm coining with you."] '* Good get your hat." 

2. [ u Where is it ? "] " In the library shall I go and get 
it?" 

3. ["I don't like to trouble you."] " No trouble at all 
I am glad to be of service.'''' 

4. " Hello fellows where are you going?" " To the cir- 
cus come along " 

5. [" But he is out of work."] " So much the better he'll 
be more easily induced to join us." 

6. [" What did you use ? "] " Ink did you ever try it ? " 

7. ["I am going to get a trap."] " What for the rats 
won't touch it." 

8. [" She's to be married."] " When do tell me 1 haven't 
heard of it." 

9. ["Is your life insured?"] "Certainly my house 
too." 

10. [" Who's the handsome lady near the door ? "] " Our 
cook haven? t you been introduced ?" 

11. [" Has he big side whiskers like tusks? "] " No why 
should he ?" 

12. [" Have you a brother named Heliogabalus ? "] "Not 
that I know why ?" 

13. ["I have brought you a yellow bass."] "Glorious 
where is it ?" 

14. ["He's a genius."] " Beally at what ? " 



PUNCTUATION 



325 



much we have 



15. [ u Do. you like ortolans?"] " Very 
them every morning for breakfast.'''' 

698. Study Rules 257, 298. The following expressions are Comma 
incorrectly punctuated ; each is an example of the comma fault 
fault. Rewrite the expressions, correcting the comma fault 
in each (see Rule 298). 1. I employed a tutor, but it was 
useless, I could not master the subject. 2. Next day he 
saw the old woman sitting in the same place, he approached 
and asked who she was. 3. On Tuesday I was fortunately 
hurt, I say " fortunately " because but for that hurt, I should 
have been killed. 4. The students are inattentive, and the 
professor has to repeat his remarks, all this delays the prog- 
ress of the lesson. 5. What is there to show for the money 
invested, practically nothing. 6. When the two men were 
found to be impostors, they were tortured, one was branded 
and the other was "scalped. 7. If the stick were bent, it 
w T ould perhaps crack, anyway it would not stay in place. 
8. You must devise your own system of notation, the simpler 
the system the better. 9. When they opened their door, 
there was a loud crash, it sounded like tin cans falling. 
10.' Mrs. Page could stand the strain no longer, she opened 
the door and looked in. 11. Is he going to weaken as soon 
as he leaves college, no he is not, he will always retain his 
strength and energy. 12. A spirit of hope and cheer is 
necessary, without it the fight will be lost. 13. Consider the 
Russo-Japanese war for instance, the Japanese were intelli- 
gent, they knew what they were fighting for. 14. The screws 
must be accurately adjusted, if they are not, the readings 
will be incorrect. 15. When I become an engineer, I shall 
accomplish great things, that is what I expect now, at any 
rate. 16. Iago does not plot against Roderigo from mere 
love of money, it is mainly pure malignity that actuates him. 
17. Iago is Shakespeare's greatest villain, he does evil for 
evil's sake. 18. His fleet numbered only twenty ships, of 
these only a few were fit for service. 



699. Study Rules 257, 293. The following expressions 
are incorrectly punctuated ; each is an example of the 
comma fault. Rewrite the expressions, correcting the 
comma fault in each (see Rule 298). 1. I have worked 
in two departments, one summer I worked on the 
grinding floor and another summer in the shipping room. 
2. There are two routes to Spain, they are the Atlantic 
route and the dream route. 3. Formerly he had been a 
rough, loud-swearing sailor, now his manners were mild, 
and he was devoted to charity. 4. Then I rushed to get 



Comma 
fault 



326 



EXERCISES 



Comma my breakfast, it was good, but I could, not linger at it. 

fault 5. When prom, time approaches, we seek money and a girl, 

without the one the other is useless. 6. We prepare the 
house for the guests, they are to stay only three short days, 
but the house must be immaculate. 7. For several drys I 
worked hard and went to bed dog-tired, then came the 
house party and my disgust vanished, I enjoyed it thor- 
oughly and regretted it must end. 8. Look at the second 
argument, does the gentleman expect us to take it seriously ? 
9. If we read every novel published, what would happen, 
we should go blind or insane. 10. You are entirely mis- 
taken in the matter, listen, piety is merely his stalking- 
horse. 11. Many an autobiographer begins by saying he 
was born of poor but honest parents, well, my parents were 
honest but not poor. 12. Going to church did me no harm, 
I met a good sort of people and enjoyed myself with the 
younger set. 13. I should wish to have abundance of light, 
there should be chandeliers and sidelights in every conceiv- 
able place. 14. The school was in the same condition then 
as it is now, there were too many students to be well pro- 
vided for. 15. The depth of the water varies, at one place 
it is four feet and at another twenty. 16. German is a hard 
study, I manage to pass in it, but that's all. 17. The fool 
drops out of the play after the storm scene, by some it is 
conjectured that he died of a broken heart. 



Interior Punctuation 

Mistaken 700. Study Rule 299. Write the following sentences, 

junction punctuating correctly : 1. I became greatly interested in 
good plays and acting. Ever since I have been a regular 
attendant at the theater. 2. However capable as he was 
he failed of his purpose. 3. Rosencrantz had not been taken 
for an ignorant day laborer had accidentally disclosed the 
trap just in time. 4. Soon after I was picked up by a 
passing ship. 5. The police were powerless to cope with 
the mob and the fire department was not allowed to extin- 
guish the fire. 6. Thousands of people thronged down 
town to see the buildings and the streets were completely 
blocked. 7. For the testing of the brass chemists take a 
sample while the metal is being cast. 8. In preparing for 
the work of casting the workmen wrap themselves in heavy 
coverings. 9. I believe that hazing is a good thing for many 
freshmen need a lesson in humility. 10. If there is no one 
else to take care of the children will not be a burden. 
11. There is nothing more ruinous to the accura'cy of obser- 
vation than the vaulting imagination that always believes 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



327 



the marvelous and the boundless credulity that believes the 
incredible. 12. It was early when we started for the little 
hut in the woods was a long way off. 18. So far as I 
can judge Mr. Bryan's intended attack on solid New Eng- 
land is inspired by an utterly vain hope. 14. If you are 
going to move a want ad will help you dispose of goods 
you want to get rid of. 15. The first time a novice at- 
tempts to steer the boat should be insured. 16. When he 
entered the door a heavy iron-studded one clanked shut. 
17. Shortly after the doctor left Mr. Hawkins. lying quietly 
on the bed began to snore. 

701. Study Rules 300-302. ' Write the following sen- Interven- 
tences, punctuating correctly : 1. He should as I said be- hag words 
fore read Pope's Atticus. 2. He is to say the least not 
trustworthy. 3. .We might I suppose be angry at the libel ; 

the satire on the other hand would please us. 4. The 
Henleyite's idea is as I understand it to express violent con- 
tempt. 5. We can unless I am much mistaken benefit him 
greatly. 6. She would not except in an emergency will- 
ingly join with such people. 7. Quadrille she has often 
told me was her first love. 8. Whist is not as quadrille is 
a feast of snatches. 9. But the eye my dear sir is agreeably 
refreshed by the variety. 10. I am not to tell the truth 
very fond of the game. 11. These terms she thought sa- 
vored of affectation. 12. Games of skill if played for a 
stake are a pure system of overreaching. 13. A slate she 
used to say would be the proper arena for such amusements. 
14. What death in your judgment is most eligible ? 15. But 
this statement on consideration I doubt. 16. If a man dies 
for instance while intoxicated, his death is regarded I have 
often observed with peculiar horror. 17. Nor will he on 
the other hand be blamed for neglecting a thing which was 
so far as he could see of no consequence. 18. The coach 
was by some rare accident not yet ready. 19. He did not 
as a matter of fact understand a word of Latin. 20. He 
has gone I believe to Manchester. 21. The Cyclops it is 
very probable was much put out by iEneas. 

702. Study Rules 300-302, 400, 401. Write the following Interpo- 
sentences, punctuating correctly: 1. Carroll was to say the lated 
least frivolous. His frivolity however was harmless. 2. The however 
martyr's act was I grant fanatical ; it is however worthy of 
admiration. 3. The Book of Proverbs is properly speaking 

a medley. There are however evidences that it was com- 
piled by one man. 4. We call it to be sure a penny dread- 
ful ; it has however several merits. 5. If the vow absurd 



328 



EXERCISES 






as it is were only performed, one could respect him. He is 
too weak however to keep any promise at all. 6. He 
vowed for example to chain two mountains together. Be- 
fore he could finish the task however he died. 7. He is 
at liberty to sell if he pleases all his property ; he has no 
right however to sell any of mine. 8. They all seemed J 
thought ashamed of the exhibition. To me however it ap- 
peared very creditable. 9. Jewish severity you know was 
purely ethical ; the Greeks however carried their police regu- 
lations into elrland. 10. Greek criteria were as every one 
knows dominant for many centuries. They did not succeed 
however in conquering the world of art permanently. 

Comma 703. Study Rules 317, 318. Write the following sen- 

before and tences, punctuating correctly : 1. His eyes flashed as he drew 
his sword and his breath came short and quick. 2. A lamp- 
post should be wrought in twisted iron and a pillar box ' 
should be carved with figures. 3. Horton scowled at the 
captain and the mate muttered angrily. 4. The altitude is 
high and consequently the air is cool. 5. The snow was about 
four inches deep on the fields and in some places it had 
drifted to the depth of three feet. 6. The well was con- 
cealed by the snow and Porter stepped on one of the rotten 
boards that lay across its mouth. 7. They started toward 
home but nightfall overtook them and they lost their way. 
8. Miss Lane was Fred's teacher and his dearest wish was 
to give her a handsome valentine. 9. Fortunately the water 
was not hot enough to scald him and he was more frightened 
than hurt. 10. He bought the land with his own money 
and his bank account was not extremely large, either. 
11. We asked what they wanted the basket for but they 
refused to explain. 12. He knocked over the screen and 
the lamp burning on the table showed him the vanishing 
coat tails of his guest. 13. There were few who made the 
team and the whole squad numbered only seventeen. 
14. The abuses finally became intolerable to the faculty 
and the students themselves favored a reform. 15. Here 
the ground was dry and dog violets grew in abundance. 

Comma 704. Study Rules 317-319. Write the following sen- 

bef ore for tences, punctuating correctly : 1. Mr. Blount was evidently 
anxious for his eyes kept wandering toward the door. 
2. You need not forbid her to do it for her father will not 
permit it anyway. 3. It is a very good story for the author 
is unusually clever and witty. 4. I do not care at all for 
the statue is only a replica. 5. I am glad of this opportunity 
to cast my vote for Nolan is certainly the man for the place. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



329 



6. The other ships followed the Formidable for they dared 
not deviate from her course. 7. He remained silent for fear 
had paralyzed his tongue. 8. The captain was mistaken 
for a common sailor had discharged the shot. 9. I cannot 
give very much for my father allows me very little pocket 
money. 10. He exulted for his success was certain to make 
him famous. 11. They waited in vain for the bold diver 
never reappeared. 12. The last trip was especially danger- 
ous for the sailors were exposed to the guns of the muti- 
neers. 13. In the harvest season thousands of men flock to 
the West for the wages are tempting. 14. He may spend 
the money as he pleases for his pleasures concern no one but 
himself. 15. We should surely not make such a contribu- 
tion for his family would regard it as a humiliation. 
16. They reached the fortress none too soon for the enemy 
were already at the. harbor mouth. 

705. Study Rules 31 7-319. Write the following sentences, 
punctuating correctly : 1. Now let them rake the bay with 
shot ; we care not for our ships are beyond the range of their 
guns. 2. I was much interested in swimming for a prize 
was offered to the winner of a swimming match. 3. Make 
your preparations to-night for Heaven only knows whether 
there will be time in the morning. 4. I learned to dance for 
my father and mother thought it good exercise. 5. I told 
the committee I was well qualified for shoveling sand is really 
an intricate and puzzling occupation compared to the work 
they wanted done. 6\ I will certainly not do the work for 
nothing is so distasteful to me as a job of that kind. 7. I 
thought he spoke English remarkably well for a Swede usu- 
ally makes many more mistakes than he made. 8. I don't 
want that machine for mine is much better. 9. Marcy was 
afraid to jump for once he had been injured in attempting a 
similar feat. 10. This is necessary for the motor and the 
light do not vary in proportion. 11. The darkness was 
favorable for my plan required the utmost secrecy. 12. I 
needed some oil for the wheels of my wagon had begun to 
squeak. 13. Bring a few lanterns for the lawn is to be illu- 
minated. 14. The doctor prescribed no medicine for the 
patient seemed nearly recovered. 15. Don't wear shabby 
clothes for men will not respect you if you do. 

706. Study Rules 317-318. Write the following sentences, 
punctuating correctly: 1. Gondremark prepared an order 
for the arrest of the prince and the princess signed it. 2. He 
is benefited by the new rules but yet he is discontented. 
3. This angered Damfreville but still he controlled his 



Comma 
before for 



Miscella- 
neous co- 
ordinating 
conjunc- 
tions 



330 EXERCISES 

temper. 4. It was rumored that he had for this purpose 
sacrificed the life of a child and a woman of his household 
vouched for the report. 5. One day he saw Rappaccini walk- 
ing among the shrubs and the flowers seemed to him to 
shrink as the doctor passed. 6. I patted the puppy's head 
and its tail wagged joyfully. 7. He brought some flowers 
to Miss Miriam and her sister was jealous. 8. There was a 
purple mark on his hand and his arm tingled with a strange 
pain. 9. They came to know each other better and he often 
went into the garden to walk with her for an hour with her 
he prized more highly than a day at his books. 10. A faint- 
ness seemed to seize Beatrice and Giovanni caught her to 
save her from falling. 11. One day a French ship was 
sighted and he ordered his men to give chase. 12. The 
work has been done faithfully and well he deserves his com- 
pensation. 13. Such are the qualities of the American 
1 l hobo " and the gentle reader will please bear them in mind. 
14. He was to steer the Formidable and the other ships 
were to follow her. 15. Our hero promptly knocked down 
the junior and six sophomores then seated themselves on our 
hero. 16. He stooped to pluck one of the flowers but she 
seized his arm and forbade him. 

Relative 707. Study Rules 251, 252, 334-336, 342. Write the fol- 

clauses lowing sentences, punctuating correctly. Underline the 

relative clause in each sentence, and at the end of each 
sentence state whether the clause underlined is restrictive 
or non-restrictive. 1. The great philosopher Plato who 
flourished long before the Christian era anticipated some 
of the teachings of Christ. 2. He that ruleth his temper 
is greater than he that taketh a city. 3. I am the Lord thy 
God that brought thee out of the land of Egypt. 4. Can you 
name the place where he is hiding and the persons who aided 
in his escape ? 5. I detest a man who is snobbish. 6. A 
woman who wears a rat is a deceiver. 7. Suggest some 
book that would be suitable for a birthday present. 8. Those 
who cannot swim should keep away from the water. 9. A 
painting that one does not get tired of is extremely rare. 
10. One of the most beautiful chapters is the one in which 
the still, small voice is spoken of. 11. The friends who tell 
us the truth are not always those we enjoy most. 12. A 
photographer who delivers his pictures when they are prom- 
ised is sure to get rich. 13. My early education was given 
me by my parents who taught me my A B C's and my num- 
bers. 14. The spokes should be made of ash which for this 
purpose is better than oak. 15. He married Cynthia Neck- 
ington who though she was beautiful had a temper that made 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



331 



his life miserable. 16. I resign in favor of Mr. Anselm 
Gregory for whom I ask your hearty support. 17. The 
battle was won by Admiral Dewey about whom little had up 
to that time been generally known. 

708. Study Rules 251, 252, 334-336, 342. Write the fol- 
lowing sentences, punctuating correctly. Underline the 
relative clause in each sentence, and at the end of each 
sentence state whether the clause underlined is restrictive 
or non-restrictive. 1. We have left undone those things 
which we ought to have done, and we have done those 
things which we ought not to have done. 2. My grand- 
father Sievers who was born in Pomerania always spoke 
broken English. 3. The wood out of which paper is made 
is inferior to that out of which sideboards are made. 4. Hen- 
ning was on intimate terms with President Cleveland who 
greatly admired his ability and integrity. 5. The room was 
adorned with goldenrod of which many varieties grew in the 
neighborhood. 6. Dickens's David Copperfleld which is 
my favorite novel is somewhat autobiographical. 7. A cat 
that crowed would be no more wonderful than a rooster 
that meowed. 8. The Sistine Madonna which Raphael 
painted centuries ago is still as fresh and beautiful as ever. 
9. The picture by which Raphael is best known is the Sis- 
tine Madonna. 10. He kept the scarab in his lower right- 
hand waistcoat pocket on which he frequently laid his hand. 
11. I do not want books that instruct ; I want books that 
amuse. 12. George Eliot's novels which are, I admit, very 
instructive bore me ; I like R. L. Stevenson who provides 
plenty of healthy homicide. 13. Blackmar wore his very 
best suit which was a green and brown plaid. 14. Next 
she played Sally in Our Alley of which I am particularly 
fond. 15. He decided to go to Harvard University where 
he thought the society would be congenial to him. 16. I 
waited for him until midnight when I gave up hope and 
went to bed. 17. Any person who carries concealed 
weapons is liable to arrest. 18. The time when kings' 
caprices were law is long gone by. 19. [Do you see this 
parchment ?] The ink with which it was written was 
mingled with tears. 20. This is Springfield, the place 
where the arsenal is maintained. 



Relative 
clauses 



709. Study Rules 335, 337, 338, 342. Write the following 
sentences, punctuating correctly. In each one, underline 
the adjective element to which Rule 335 applies, and at the 
end of the sentence state whether that element is restrictive 
or non-restrictive. 1. It is strange that a play so tragic as 



Restric- 
tive and 
non-re- 
strictive 
phrases 



332 



EXERCISES 



Restric- 
tive and 
non-re- 
strictive 
phrases 



Lear should give you pleasure. 2. Shakespeare's Lear so 
tragic and pathetic seemed to fit into my mood. 3. A man 
full of enthusiasm is the kind of president we want — not a 
man full of misgivings. 4. Napoleon full of confidence 
advanced into Russia. 5. When the police and the students 
met, the students having the advantage of numbers were vic- 
torious. 6. Students having second-hand books to dispose 
of are invited to call at Hamstring and Sissley's bookstore. 
7. The faculty not being in sympathy with lawlessness 
suspended the rioters. 8. At Valley Forge the Ameri- 
can army hard-pressed for supplies became disheartened. 
9. A man hard-pressed for money usually becomes discour- 
aged. 10. The uncouth Jim McTaggart ill-dressed and 
awkward was not welcome in the Du Blois home. 11. Men 
ill-dressed and awkward are not found in the duchess's 
salon. 12. The steamboat Sylph propelled by her clumsy 
stern wheel was not expected to win the race. 18. A 
steamboat propelled by a stern wheel is an unusual sight 
nowadays. 14. The ink used by printers is different from 
that used for manuscript. 15. Homer's Iliad w r ritten prob- 
ably over two thousand years ago enjoys undiminished 
popularity still. 16. William J. Bryan already twice de- 
feated is again a candidate. 17. The numerous books 
already written by Mr. Riddleston are nothing to those still 
to be written. 18. The door flew open, and Ralph Rack- 
' straw covered with mud entered the church. 19. A man 
covered with mud is an unusual figure in church. 20. I 
have never yet written a theme free from errors. 



Such as 710. Study Rules 339-341. Write the following sen- 

tences, punctuating correctly : 1. Several prominent men 
were mentioned such as McKinley, Cleveland, and Conkling. 
2. The usual studies are pursued there such as Latin, alge- 
bra, and history. 3. Violent exercises such as baseball, 
tennis, and boat racing are not encouraged. 4. A few little 
conveniences such as bootjacks, corkscrews, and garden 
hoses were provided. 5. The things they eat are dainty 
enough such as walrus chops, whale fat, and jerked bear. 
6. Ordinary words such as together, separate, and all right 
must not be misspelled. 7. The more expensive instru- 
ments such as kettledrums, bass viols, and trombones are 
still to be purchased. 8. The story is full of queer conceits 
such as puns, quibbles, and other plays on words. 9. Many 
distracting noises such as gunshots, whistles, and the wailing 
of tomcats kept us long awake. 10. He was greeted with 
numerous expressions of contempt such as groans, hisses, 
and cries of "pish!" "tush!" " pooh ! " "bah!" 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



333 



711. Study Rules 250, 348, 349. Write the following 
sentences, punctuating correctly : 1. When a shotgun is 
brought in from the field it is usually dirty. 2. If the gun 
is dry it need not be cleaned at once. 3. Since rags will 
stick in the barrel now and then it may be well to explain 
here how to remove them. 4. If the ramrod is stuck in the 
barrel the protruding end may be fastened in a vice. 
5. When the barrel has been polished until it shines like a mir- 
ror you may consider the job finished. 6. If the foregoing 
directions are followed the gun will give satisfaction. 
7. When I used to carry my dinner pail to the little school at 
Nichol's Corner I felt very self-important. 8. Even after 
I started to school it was long before I enjoyed playing with 
the other children. 9. Since I had always before that time 
been so much alone it was not easy for me to make friends. 
10. Although at present I have many friends I care for 
Jim more than for any one else. 11. Finally when a beau- 
tiful warm day arrived the news spread among the boys that 
Roy Hoover had been swimming. 12. When the work 
is passed over so quickly we cannot grasp it very well. 
13. After we are up and are outdoors taking a brisk walk we 
wonder why we hated so much to get up. 14. When all is 
ready for the work of casting the men wrap themselves in 
carpets. 



Adverbial 
clause 
preceding 
principal 



712. Study Rules 250, 348, 349. Write the following 
sentences, punctuating correctly : 1. After the metal has be- 
come molten a slag forms at the bottom. 2. When the en- 
tire charge is melted iron ore is added. 3. As the name 
Highland Home suggests it is a large country house. 

4. When you reach the top of the hill you can see the creek. 

5. Shortly after the stranger left Billy Bones died. 6. While 
Jim w T as wandering over the island he came upon a man 
dressed in skins. 7. As soon as they left the ship the men 
on board began to prepare the cannon. 8. When the mu- 
tineers approached the squire and the captain fired. 9. Im- 
mediately after they entered the house w r as attacked by the 
mob. 10. When I awoke my companions were already half 
dressed. 11. One day while they were hunting a bear crossed 
the trail a short distance ahead of them. 12. Although they 
had some difficulty in climbing the stairs seemed to be at 
least perfectly secure. 13. A few days after they sailed the 
boat sprang a leak. 14. Although I know I shall never reach 
the place I keep on dreaming that I shall go there sometime. 
15. As I work ahead and see more clearly what is possible 
I build new castles on my Spanish estate. 16. If the farmer 
knew what the birds live on he would regard them as friends. 



Adverbial 
clause 
preceding 
principal 



334 



EXERCISES 



17. When the time comes to study everything but the lesson 
is forgotten. 

Apposi- 713. Study Rules 372, 373. Write the following sentences, 

tives punctuating correctly: 1. Thomas De Quincey author of 

Joan of Arc was an opium-eater. 2. A fine fellow a mem- 
ber of the yacht club was drowned. 3. Alexander the Greek 
conqueror was well educated. 4. The Lady of Shalott a 
mythical person is described by Tennyson. 5. The south- 
ern side is washed by the Propontis a beautiful lake. 6. It 
received the appellation of Bosphorus a name celebrated in 
the fables of antiquity. 7. My ancestors the Montresors 
were a great family. 8. There he saw Bartram a rough-look- 
ing man sitting by the furnace. 9. A shaggy dog a grave 
and venerable quadruped now approached. 10. There sat 
the stage agent a wilted and smoke-dried man. 11. There 
also was the village doctor a man of fifty years. 12. Isaacs 
the keeper of the shop was absent. 13. The dinner a very 
scanty meal was soon eaten. 14. The features of Dante the 
Italian poet were very somber. 15. This oration a classic 
once is now forgotten. 

Namely 714. Study Rules 386, 387. Write the following, punc- 

tuating correctly : 1. I demand only one thing namely jus- 
tice. 2. Only two dances are used namely the waltz and 
the highland fling. 3. Two words I fear I habitually mis- 
spell namely athlete and disappoint. 4. You will find 
there a person whom I wish you to know namely Madeline 
Mooney. 5. Remember particularly the books I mentioned 
first namely Middlemarch, Kenilworth, and Hard Cash. 
6. It is attractive but for a serious drawback namely the 
interminable piano strumming above. 7. She bade me ad- 
mire what she called her chief treasures namely an intaglio 
of Sophocles, a Delia Robbia replica, and a bronze bulldog. 
8. Surety bonds are required of three officers viz. the presi- 
dent, the treasurer, and the janitor. 9. He has disregarded 
an important requirement viz. the requirement made in 
article VI. 10. They should appear at those times when 
they have promised to appear viz. whenever the choir master 
shall request it. 11. On that corner you will find three 
interesting buildings viz. the sub treasury, the cathedral, and 
a saloon. 12. We shall study the three principal varieties 
viz. tropes, miracles, and moralities. 13. He was found 
waiting at his post namely the cottage which he had been 
ordered to guard. 14. One characteristic of his I must com- 
mend namely the fact that he steadfastly discountenances 
stained glass. 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



335 



715. Study Rules 429-433. Write the following sen- 
tences, punctuating correctly : 1. My dear fellow what made 
you so careless ? 2. That is a serious change Mr. Spoker. 
3. Your Majesty he has done his duty. 4. At any rate 
Mr. Harris I have received an oral promise. 5. Be quiet 
child I am busy. 6. To-morrow my dear I shall receive a 
check. 7. For years Mr. Speaker this law has been a dead 
letter. 8. The regulation of railways ladies and gentlemen 
must be undertaken by Congress. 9. Gentlemen may I 
be of any service ? 10. Will you take this seat madam ? 
11. Stand up Mr. Waters. 12. You may sit down Mr. 
Waters. 13. I'm glad to see you old man. 14. Jim have 
you a match ? 15. Bridget where's my pipe ? 16. Mr. Cox 
here is your hat. 17. Members of the Mallet Club I salute 
you. 

716. Study Rules 444-447. Write a composition about a 
journey, using the following expressions : 



Vocatives 



Syracuse, New York 
May 19, 1910 
Wednesday, May 21 
Gallipolis, Ohio 
Covington, Kentucky 
August 17, 1836 
Brantford, Ontario 



January, 1840 
Cincinnati, Ohio 
June 2-13 
Erie, Pennsylvania 
Albany, New York 
Delaware County, Ohio 



Geograph- 
ical ex- 
pressions 
and dates 



717. Study Rules 452-462. The following sentences are 
incorrectly punctuated ; each contains one or more super- 
fluous commas. Rewrite the sentences, using no interior 
punctuation, except two commas in No. 1 (see Rule 328). 
1. The qualifications, which are most important, are, good 
health, agility and keen sight. [336, 462.] 2. Many 
players have, what is often called, a baseball brain. [456, 
457.] 3. A horse is the most useful, of all animals, to man. 
4. This part of the store is separated," from the rest of the 
store, by a green cloth. [369.] 5. I went away, with a 
good picture, of a Chinese laundry, in my mind. 6. A 
horse is an animal, that is looked upon, as more than a 
beast of burden. [336, 358.] 7. A farm horse's work 
begins, in* earnest, when the frost has thawed. [369, 
358.] From that time, on, he is busy, nearly all day long. 
[343, 347, 358.] 8. There are many other places, besides 
the farm, where horses are used. 9. He is, sometimes, 
neglected. [343.] The drive was a pleasure, to those, who 
enjoyed scenery. [358, 336.] 10. I, by no means, want to 
condemn hazing. [369.] 11. The proper way to write a 
theme, on the care of a horse, would be to select the kind 



Super- 
fluous 
commas 



386 



EXERCISES 



Super- 
fluous 
commas 



Period 
fault 



of horse, you wish to write about. [335 6, 336.] 12. He 
had a temper under the influence of which, he lost his 
self-control. [453.] 13. One day, a poor, old, ragged, 
tramp walked into the yard of a prosperous farm, in Dane 
County, and knocked, timidly, on the door. [347, 305 r 
335, 320, 343.] 14. A successful business man must have, 
what is called, tact. [456, 457.] 15. My father offered 
me, what I thought was a good position. [456.] 16. He 
promised to double all the money I should save, in the 
course of the year. [358.] 17. At the end of my course I 
decided, that I did not need any more education. [454.] 
18. Hans was giving a student, what appeared to be, his 
first lesson. [456, 457.] 

718. Study Rules 452-462. The following sentences are 
incorrectly punctuated; each contains one or more superflu- 
ous commas. Rewrite the sentences, using no interior punc- 
tuation, except a comma after "a brilliant mind" in No. 1 
(see Rule 349), and three commas in No. 2 (see Rules 336, 
328): 1. Samuel Johnson stood forth, among the men of his 
time, as a giant, with clay feet. Although he was endowed 
by nature, with a brilliant mind, yet, in the eyes of many 
people, the disagreeable elements in his character, outweighed 
his merits. One must remember that, for nearly every fault 
of his, there was some adequate reason. His bad table man- 
ners were due to the fact, that, for a great many years, he 
had been near starvation. 2. In the center, is a stove around 
which, a number of farmers, laborers, and boys, were gath- 
ered. [347, 453.] 3. I forgot to take into consideration, 
that I should have to buy clothes. [454.] 4. Perhaps, 
he has lost it. 5. I am glad, you did not forget. [454 ft, 
455.] 6. She felt, that she had been slighted. [454.] 
7. Farm implements, and coils of thick rope, were piled 
in one corner. [320, 322.] 8. No latest fashions, or shim- 
mering silks, were displayed, in that window. [322, 358.] 
9. A good batter, often, saves the game for his team. 
[343.] 10. It seemed almost impossible, that he could do 
the work. [382 6.] 11. I never owned a boat, of any 
kind. [335 a.] 12. She goads him on, and, with withering 
sarcasm, reproaches him for his cowardice. [320, 347.] 
13. But, in the end, a broken-down mind is all tlfat remains 
of her once proud spirit. [347, 355.] 14. The meeting of 
his heavy eye-brows, indicates a temper. 15. Then Casey 
wielded the bat, with masterly strength. [358.] 

719. Study Rules 463-467. The following expressions 
are incorrectly punctuated ; each is an example of the period 
fault. Rewrite the expressions, correcting the period fault 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 337 

in each: 1. Further north is a big lake, where I keep my Period 
boats. My bilge-board sloop, my racing power boat, and fault 
my big launch. 2. The story of King Lear is derived from 
an old Celtic legend. Lear being represented as the tenth 
descendant of Brutus, the first king of Britain. 3. As you 
go up the drive, you see at the right a little summerhouse 
which is one mass of vines. While on the other side is a 
large stable. 4. I suspected two fellows in particular. 
Buck Joslin, whom I had seen hiding near the shed, and 
Bill Arnold, the pink-eyed delivery boy. 5. We were all 
excitement, thinking of the pleasant week that was before 
us. The sport of a military train, the quick construction of 
the camp, the morning marches, and the evening parade. 
6. I came to the conclusion that a musical life was not a fit 
life for a man who had not the most extraordinary genius. 
That it was poorly recompensed and might not bring me the 
bare necessaries of life. 7. I never tired of hearing my 
father tell how Bob came at night and barked until the door 
was opened. Then how he led the men to the place where 
his injured master lay. 8. The house stands between a 
large creek, flowing from east to west at this point, and the 
road, which here turns east again. So that in going from 
Chadwick one must cross the creek before reaching the house. 
9. The pots are usually made of plumbago and German clay. 
Each pot being used only two or three times. 10. We 
argued the matter for some time during the following month. 
He trying to persuade me to go to college, and I insisting 
that a commercial career was better. 11. They went home 
with the recovered treasure, which they divided equally 
among themselves. Each man swearing to keep the ex- 
pedition secret. 12. It must have been a great temptation 
to Iago to work upon so sensitive a person as Othello. One 
w r ho would be so tender on the very points which Iago 
attacked. His love for Desdemona and his high sense of 
honor. 13. Coleridge considered Iago as a man who de- 
lights in malice for its own sake. A kind of Mephistopheles, 
and so, I believe, does Professor Bradley. 14. People have 
different methods of building these "Spanish castles." 
Some by marrying wealth, for example, and some by seeking 
the gold fields. 15. There were two books on the table. 
One a small, gilded volume, and the other a commercial 
ledger. 16. Blount wore an article of adornment that 
marked him unmistakably as an American. A baggage 
check suspended from his fob. 

720. Study Rules 463-467. The following expressions Period 
are incorrectly punctuated ; each is an example of the period fault 



338 



EXERCISES 



Period fault. Rewrite the expressions, correcting the period fault 

fault in each : 1. Mr. Beverly shuffled, using the table method. 

That is, by dividing the deck into two packs and passing his 
thumbs along a corner of each pack. 2. It was in the winter 
that the reclamation of the land began. That time of the 
year being the dry season. 3. At the very outset he an- 
nounced those policies which he sought to promote through 
his whole career. The annihilation of the Huguenots, the 
subjugation of the nobles, and the increase of the interna- 
tional influence of France. 4. A boy that is brought up 
without the companionship of any brothers or sisters is 
likely to turn out a mollycoddle. Especially so if he lives 
with a grandmother and a grandfather who believe he is 
the most wonderful boy in the world. 5. Some of my 
courses are easy for me, on account of a natural mechanical 
ability. For instance drawing and shop work. 6. My 
sisters have always been a voluntarily organized detective 
bureau. Said bureau existing for the purpose of keeping 
watch on me. 7. She said that if he was disrespectful to 
any woman, he wronged all women. That she was deter- 
mined to help her sex by being true to it. 8. Hardly had 
the doctor disappeared when Jim also slipped away. The 
latter with the intention of cutting the ship from her anchor. 
9. After a short vogue of the narrow trousers, the peg-top 
style again became popular. This time to remain in fashion 
for an indefinitely long time, it seems. 10. He saw two 
figures far out on the ice. A boy and a girl skimming grace- 
fully along, their skates flashing in the sun. 11. The French 
had been routed. Not annihilated, but forced to take flight. 
12. My parents were extremely afraid of the river. That is 
to have me near it. 13. There ought to be two courses in 
chemistry. One for those who have studied the subject 
before, and one for beginners. 14. I think that men and 
women should not be in the same classes. Not because of 
any mental inequality, but for other reasons, 15. Hector 
is pictured as a man of sobriety and determination. While 
Paris is the reverse. 16. The author points his moral in a 
very clear way. In a way that any child could understand 
and yet at the same time the story is charming to a mature 
reader. 



General 
exercise 
in interior 
punctu- 
ation 



721. Study Rules 299-435. Write the following sen- 
tences, punctuating them correctly. After each mark of 
punctuation, write within brackets the number of the rule 
in accordance with which the mark is used. 1. On the 
south side for about fifty feet in it is divided into two stories. 
2. It will never rank high as an intercollegiate game for the 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



339 



students find greater enjoyment in a contest between teams. 
3. First of all let me say do not come here unless you have 
plenty of money for expenses are high. 4. I advise you 
however to investigate for yourself. 5. Ruling pens like 
any other sharp instrument become dull with use. 6. When 
the instruments are laid away especially if they are not to be 
used for some time the compasses should be left open for 
otherwise they will lose their spring. 7. The better the 
health of the men is the more they can accomplish. 8. The 
benefit does not lie only in the development of individual 
students but it lies also in the good done to the college as a 
whole. 9. The report will spread to remote villages and 
people in the backwoods will be induced to seek the college. 

10. The yard is bordered on the west side by a row of pine 
trees and other trees and shrubs are planted about the lawn. 

11. Along the east side are a number of plum trees and sev- 
eral flower beds dot the lawn near by. 12. This statement 
was made to Mr. A. E. Storey chairman of the committee. 
13. If our laws are not what they should be it is time they 
were amended. 14. While we were eating a child the son 
of one of the natives approached. 15. Some were armed 
with bolos but an order was given that no one should fire. 

16. After the ship is in the upper gate of the lock is closed. 

17. Bishop of Beauvais thy victim died in fire. 



722. Study Rules 299-450. Write the following sentences, 
punctuating them correctly. After each mark of punctua- 
tion, write within brackets the number of the rule in accord- 
ance with which the mark is used: 1. I slept very late 
slept in fact until noon. 2. The back of the table its square 
corners its size its heaviness these are features I did not per- 
ceive. 3. This phenomenon has received a recognized name 
among alienists namely aphasia. 4. The great difference 
in fact between the two kinds of thinking is this that em- 
pirical thinking is reproductive but reasoning is productive. 
5. It shone by its own light a strange thing to see. 6. We 
think that the premises of both controversialists were un- 
sound that on these premises Addison reasoned well and 
Steele ill and that consequently Addison brought out a false 
conclusion while Steele blundered upon the truth. 7. The 
pamphlet contains seventy-two pages and much information 
concerning the work of the past year is furnished within this 
space much more than was given to the public in the smaller 
publications of 1901 1902 and 1903. 8. The state's attorney 
who has been indefatigable in the effort to obtain evidence 
against Ma.sill the detective on the case and the special grand 
jurymen all are puzzled. 9. Tennyson's The Lady of 



General 
exercise 
in interior 
punctu- 
ation 



340 



EXERCISES 



General 
exercise in 
interior 
punctu- 
ation 



Shalott is a narrative poem relating how a mysterious lady 
living on an island in a river within view of the castle of 
Camelot was enjoined under penalty of a mortal curse to 
weave incessantly at a loom and never to look toward 
Camelot how she continued for a while to observe the mystic 
decree never even looking from the window but observing 
the scenes near her island by the reflection of them in a 
mirror how weary with the task and the restraint she one 
day saw in her mirror the image of a splendid knight riding 
by the river hastened forgetting the prohibition to the win- 
dow gazed on the knight and in so doing saw the castle of 
Camelot and how this act of disobedience bringing the curse 
upon her she soon sickened and died. 10. Tennyson's poem 
Lady Clara Vere de Vere is the speech of a manly young 
country fellow to a beautiful but heartless young lady of 
high birth who has attempted to amuse herself by breaking 
his heart a speech expressing disdain for charms beneath 
which there is no goodness of heart and contempt for heredi- 
tary rank the possessor of which lacks true virtue and honor 
reminding the lady of the suicide of another country lad 
whom she had enticed by feigned affection and then cruelly 
repudiated and solemnly adjuring her to cease her unworthy 
and injurious diversion to turn her leisure to some good end 
and to ''pray Heaven for a human heart." 11. It was a 
sordid commercial marriage. 12. It was an important com- 
mercial transaction. 13. Abner sat on the step his ears 
strained to catch the sound of his wife's voice. 14. I can 
still see the long desks the maps the teacher's table the old 
stove which seemed always on the point of collapsing and 
can smell the odor of perennially wet shoes drying in the hot 
un ventilated room. 15. It is the woman who has walked 
across the fields on a wild winter night to help a sister 
woman in her hour of trial the woman who has dressed the 
new-born baby and composed the limbs of the dead learned 
the rude surgery of the farm harnessed horses milked cows 
carried young lambs into the kitchen to save them from 
perishing in the rough March weather it is she who has 
seen life. 16. If we find that the wickedness of destructive 
agitators and the selfish depravity of demagogues have stirred 
up discontent and strife where there should be peace and 
harmony and have arrayed against each other interests that 
should be in hearty cooperation if we find that the old stand- 
ards of sturdy uncompromising American honesty have 
become so corroded and weakened by a sordid atmosphere 
that our people are hardly startled by crime in high places 
and shameful betrayals of trust everywhere if we find a 
sadly prevalent disposition among us to turn from the high- 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 



341 



way of honorable industry into shorter crossroads leading to 
irresponsible and worthless ease if we find that widespread 
wastefulness and extravagance have discredited the whole- 
some frugality which was once the pride of Americanism we 
should recall Washington's admonition that harmony indus- 
try and frugality are " essential pillars of public felicity" 
and forthwith endeavor to change our course. 

723. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a steam shovel, a banjo-player, and 
a peacock ; construct each predication thus : 

(a) subject 

(6) intervening adverbial phrase or clause 

(c) predicate 

Example 

(a) The leader of the expedition 

(b) after conferring several hours with the guides sent 
by the Croisickese to meet him 

(c) ordered the men to camp for the night. 

Note. — In writing this and the following exercises, do not 
tabulate and mark the members of the predications as is done, 
for clearness, in the illustrations : write the predications in the 
usual way — thus: The leader of the expedition, after confer- 
ring several hours with the guides sent by the Croisickese to 
meet him, ordered the men to camp for the night. 

724. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a nursemaid, a polar bear, and the 
Secretary of War; in each predication use the following 
structure : 

(m) verb 

(n) intervening phrase or clause 

(o) object 

Example 
To say that Scott 

(m) had 

(n) more than any other man that ever lived 

(o) a sense of the romantic 
seems a slight and superficial tribute. 
Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 

725. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a convict, a stage driver, and a 
drug store; in each predication use the following structure: 

(m) verb 

(n) intervening phrase or clause 

(o) predicate noun or adjective 



Predica- 
tions to be 
composed 
and punc- 
tuated 



342 



EXERCISES 



Predica- 
tions to be 
composed 
and punc- 
tuated 



Example 

His brave and pathetic life 
(m) was 

(n) as all the world knows 
(o) a consistent practicing of what he preached. 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 



726- Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a false alarm, a wedding, and a 
swimming tank; let each predication contain a clause con- 
structed thus : 

(a) subordinating conjunction 

(6) interpolated phrase or clause 

(c) subject and predicate 

1. I will admit Example* 

(a) that 

(6) in the two great elements of social virtue in re- 
spect for the rights of others and in sympathy 
for the suffering of others 

(c) he was deficient. 

2. The time now approached 

(a) when 

(6) struggling to subdue America 
(c) England was to be assailed by France Spain and 
Holland. 

3. (a) If 

(b) after we have warned him so often 

(c) he continues to lose 
he has himself to blame. 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 

727. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a horse race, an encyclopedia, and 
a surveyor ; in each predication use the following structure : 

auxiliary 

interpolated phrase or clause 

principal verb 



(m) 
(») 
O) 



Examples 



Suppose he had done something which 

(m) might 

(n) by a questionable construction 

(o) be brought 
under the head of felony. 



tuated 



INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 343 

2. The great and victorious empire Predica- 

(w) had tions to be 

(?i) by the most senseless misgovernment by corrup- composed 
tion and by official incompetence ?i?^.£? nc " 

(o) been brought 
to the verge of ruin. 

3. He promised that he 

(m) would 

(n) whenever I should desire it 
(o) sell 
my stock and send the proceeds to my office. 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 

728. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a schoolhouse, a fisherman, and a 
yacht, using the following construction : 

(a) appositive modifier of subject 

(b) appositive modifier of subject 

(c) subject and predicate 

Example 

(a) Licentious in his pleasures 

(b) implacable in his revenge 

(c) he yet perceived that the prosperity of subjects 
adds to the strength of government. 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 

729. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with an architect, the Emperor of 
Japan, and a poultry farm, using the following construction : 

(a) absolute phrase 

(b) and 

(c) absolute phrase 
Id) subject and predicate 

Example 

(a) The governor approving the plan 

(b) and 

(c) nothing having occurred to interfere with its exe- 
cution 

(d) Hawkins proceeded to take the necessary measures. 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 

730. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a magician, a salesman, and a 
forger, using the following construction ; 



344 EXERCISES 



Predica- (a) subject and verb 

tions to be (6) object with simple modifier 

composed ( c ) object with relative clause 

and punc- (d) object with two relative clauses 



tuated 



Note. — A predication constructed in this way contains what 
is called a climax of sound ; that is, b, c, and d constitute a series 
of parallel members increasing in length and hence producing a. 
climactic effect. 

Example 

(a) Would the governor let out to hire 

(&) the irresistible energies of the imperial people 

(c) the skill against which the ablest of the native 
chiefs were helpless as infants 

(d) the unconquerable British courage which had so 
often triumphed over the forces of fanaticism and 
which is never so stubborn as towards the close 
of a doubtful and murderous day ? 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 

731. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a railroad station, a football game, 
and a fire, using the following construction : 

(a) subject with short modifier 

(b) subject with longer modifier 

(c) subject with longer modifier 

(d) subject with longer modifier 

(e) summarizing subject 
(/) predicate 

Note. — In such a predication as this, a, b, c, and d form a 
climax of sound. See the Note under Exercise 730. 

Example 

(a) The burning sun 

(b) the strange vegetation of the palm trees 

(c) the mosque where the devotee prays with his face 
toward Mecca 

(d) the huge trees, older than the Mogul Empire 
under which the village crowds assemble at their 
Oriental festivals 

(e) all these things 

(/) were to him as the objects amidst which his own 
life had been passed. 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 






INTERIOR PUNCTUATION 345 

732. Write and punctuate correctly three predications Predica- 
dealing respectively with a betrayal of trust, au anonymous tions to be 
letter. "and a clever artifice, using the following construction : composed 

and punc- 

(a) Substantive clause constructed thus : tuated 

(1) conjunction that or whether 

(2) subject 

(3) appositive 

(4) verb 

(5) object with two relative clauses 

(b) summarizing subject 

(c) predicate 

. ™, Example 

(a) (1) That F 

(2) Eaton 

(3) the man whom I had always loved and 
trusted above all others 

(4) had betrayed 

(5) the secret which he had promised to keep 
and which moreover it was to his interest 
to keep 

(b) this supposition 

(c) was quite incredible 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 

733. Write and punctuate correctly three predications 
dealing respectively with a tyrant, a benevolent ruler, and a 
clergyman, using the following construction : 

(a) It icas 

(b) proper name 

(c) appositive with simple modifier 

(d) appositive with relative clause 

(e) appositive with two relative clauses 
(/) repetition of a and b 

(g) relative clause 

Example 

(a) It was 

(b) Sheridan 

(c) the witty Irishman 

(d) the playwright whose comedies had captivated the 
whole town 

(e) the brilliant orator in whose eloquence the gal- 
lery delighted whose satire was the dread of his 
opponents 

(/) it was Sheridan who now rose and addressed the 
speaker. 

Follow the directions in the Note under Exercise 723. 



346 



EXERCISES 



End and 
interior 
punctua- 
tion to be 
deter- 
mined 



General Exercises in Separative Punctuation 

734. Study Rules 245, 246, 257, 293, 463. Write the 
following expressions correctly punctuated and capitalized: 
1. Well I must go now good-by I'll see you later. 2. She 
knew nothing of the world her one duty being the care of 
her father's house while her sister knew nothing of house- 
hold affairs and cared nothing for the quiet pleasures of the 
fireside the opera the ballroom and the promenade absorbing 
all her interest. 3. As soon as we had finished our lunch 
we jumped down into the pit this was the entrance to the 
cave we had come to explore stooping a little in order not to 
strike our heads on the low roof we entered the cave the 
boys leading the way with their candles. 4. If one says 
" a black and white dog" one means one dog the coat of 
which is partly black and partly white while if one says 
" a black and a white dog" one means two dogs. 5. I 
suppose I must go if I don't he'll be anxious. 6. A mil- 
lion dollars would yield an income quite sufficient for my 
needs and a little to spare thus disposing of the great prob- 
lem of earning a living allowing me also to devote myself to 
the good of other people. 7. The postman then approached 
he would surely stop I thought. 8. Since this is the case 
I intend either to continue my course in engineering or 
else at the end of this year to drop this course and begin the 
study of law making a specialty in the latter case of eco- 
nomics and history. 



End and 
interior 
punctu- 
ation to be 
deter- 
mined 



735. Study Rules 245, 246, 257, 293, 463. Write the 
following expressions correctly punctuated and capitalized: 
1. It was delightful to have no classes to attend nothing to 
do but rest and read also to meet my old friends who had 
come back as I had to spend the vacation at home. 2. This 
belt runs very slowly and on it the pressman puts the 
papers they are then carried to the distributing room. 
3. At three o'clock the second edition is printed none of 
this edition is sold in the city. 4. The first papers of the 
third edition go to the newsdealers these take from fifty to 
two thousand copies each next the newsboys get their ten or 
twenty copies each. 5. Should the railroad cut a man's 
land the man generally has the company agree to build a 
pass under the track or a roadway over it thus giving the 
owner easy access to the two fields separated by the track. 
6. If that were my good fortune I should surely go next 
summer to England the country in which my father was 
born and which I have always longed to visit also to Switz- 
erland for I am certain I should excel in mountain climbing. 



SEPARATIVE PUNCTUATION 347 

7. After they have decided upon the route they send out 
two parties of surveyors the first party takes surface measure- 
ments and drives stakes with the measurements written on 
them this party also keeps a careful record of all the 
measurements marked on the stakes. 8. Grout is next 
thrown in and tamped and leveled this forms the body of 
the sidewalk. 

736. Study Rules 283-285, 386-389. Write the following, For 
punctuating correctly : 1. A gerund may be used in various example 
constructions for example as subject, object, and appositive. 

2. A gerund may be used in various constructions for ex- 
ample it may be used as a subject, as an object, and as an 
appositive. 3. Phrases are of various kinds for example 
verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases. 4. Phrases 
are of various kinds for example there are verb phrases, 
preposition phrases, adjective phrases. 5. Various acci- 
dents may interfere with your progress for example flood, 
fire, or earthquake. 0. Various accidents may happen to 
you for example you may be delayed by floods or endan- 
gered by fire. 7. Laborious scholarship is not inconsistent 
with artistic feeling for example Milton and Matthew Arnold . 
were distinguished both for scholarship and for beautiful 
poetry. 8. I observe that he misspells many common words 
for example similar, all right, and receive. 9. His spelling 
is very defective for example he habitually misspells princi- 
pal, lose, and arrange. 10. He has a certain celebrity as a 
student of literature for example his monograph on the 
mischievous valet in Italian comedy is prized by Romance 
scholars. 11. I hate the various parts of household drudgery 
for instance sweeping, dish washing, and ice cracking. 
12. She is peculiarly averse to all sorts of housework for 
instance when she has to wash the breakfast dishes, she is 
irritable for the whole day. 13. Your paper shows serious 
deficiencies for example it contains misspelling, it is un- 
grammatical, and it lacks adequate punctuation. 14. Your 
paper has many serious defects for example misspelling, bad 
English, and obscure statement. 15. Be sure to bring such 
tools as may be needed for example files, gimlets, and screw- 
drivers. 16. He had to work without even the most ordinary 
tools for example he had no hammer, no saw, and no auger. 

737. Study Rules 283-285, 386-390. Write the following, That is 
punctuating correctly : 1. We will first study the so-called 
predicative part of speech that is the verb. 2. The verb is a 
predicative word that is it is a word used to assert some- 
thing. 3. A verb is a predicative word that is a word used 



348 



EXERCISES 



to assert. 4. You have failed in the study that is of most 
consequence to your career that is in chemistry. 5. Rhetoric 
is an art that is an act or course of action. 6. Physiology is 
not an art but a science that is one does not practice physi- 
ology bat simply learns it. 7. He offered to make a con- 
tract that is a binding agreement. 8. Marriage is a legal 
contract that is the parties are responsible legally as 
well as morally. 9. I have one valuable privilege that is I 
am allowed to exercise daily in the courtyard. 10. Take 
advantage of that privilege you told me about that is your 
permission to take exercise in the courtyard. 11. We ask 
her only to do her plain duty that is pay the charges she 
agreed to pay. 12. She ought to perform her promise that 
is she ought to pay the money she subscribed. 13. He then 
elucidated the subject that is made it clear. 14. The 
speaker did what he called elucidating the subject that is he 
referred to it vaguely and then spoke for an hour on an 
entirely different matter. 15. He had renounced as he said 
the very necessaries of life that is he had stopped going to 
concerts and art exhibitions. 16. For her sake I will re- 
nounce even my highest pleasure that is the symphony 
concerts. 



Colon for 
both in- 
terior and 
end punc- 
tuation 



738. Study Rules 262, 374, 375, 205-207. Write the fol- 
lowing expressions, correctly punctuating and capitalizing: 

1. This is my commandment that ye love one another. 

2. Our firm has offices in the following countries Austria, 
France, Italy, and Japan. 3. Success will be assured if you 
proceed in the following way first turn the paddle two or 
three times next pour in a few drops of oil. ... 4. I 
should be convinced, but for this damning fact a frog was 
found in the milk can. 5. Figures of speech are divided into 
the following classes term figures, modal figures, and sen- 
tence and paragraph figures. 6. My statement is proved by 
this fact that when the door was opened, the odor of gin was 
perceived. 7. The means employed to move motor cars are 
these four gasoline, steam, electricity, and plow horses. 
8. There be three things which are too wonderful for me — 
yea, four which I know not the way of an eagle in the air, 
the way of a serpent upon a rock, the way of a ship in the 
midst of the sea, and the way of a man with a maid. 9. For 
three things the earth is disquieted for a servant when he 
reigneth, for a fool when he is filled with meat, and for an 
odious woman. 10. Cicero then turned upon the traitor 
with these words " Quousque tandem, Catalina. ..." 
11. The text of Mr. Dunn's resolution is as follows " Whereas 
the Supreme Ruler of mankind has seen fit. ... " 12. I 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 



349 



will accept on this one condition that my power shall be 
absolute. 13. I can say this for him he knows a handsaw 
from a hawk. 14. The following facts we wish to cite in 
favor of the plan first the old plan has always proved exceed- 
ingly unsatisfactory the experience of President Colburn 
may serve as an illustration second the new plan is approved 
by the Reverend Dr. Mannering the most eminent modern 
authority on juvenile delinquency third . . . 

Desig native Punctuation 

739. Study Rule 482. Write ten short sentences, using in 
each, respectively, the possessive singular of one of the fol- 
lowing words : hero, John, horse, senator, miner, engineer, 
lion, husband, janitor, druggist. 

740. Study Rule 484. Write ten short sentences, using 
in each, respectively, the possessive plural of one of the fol- 
lowing words: hero, John, horse, senator, miner, engineer, 
lion, husband, janitor, druggist. 

. 741. Study Rule 483. Write two short sentences, using the 
possessive singular of Dickens, two using the possessive 
singular of Barns, two using the possessive singular of 
Bogers, two using the possessive singular of Jones, two 
using the possessive singular' of Charles, two using the 
possessive singular of Perkins, and two using the possessive 
singular of Wilkins. 

742. Study Rules 482-485. Write the following, insert- 
ing apostrophes wherever they are required: 1. We took a 
few moments rest. 2. My fathers house is larger than 
yours. 3. The ten Eastern delegates objection was dis- 
regarded. 4. I had two weeks vacation on my aunts farm. 
5. Peters wifes mother lay sick. 0. Girls costumes are 
more elaborate than boys. 7. Millionaires lives are not 
always happy. 8. A bulls neck is thicker than a giraffes. 
9. Glue is made of cows hoofs. 10. A weeks work is better 
than three months vacation. 11. He went to the farmers 
house to ask for the ladys hand. 12. An agents error is an 
employers loss. 13. For your souls good you may have an 
hours reprieve. 14. The singers voice touched the peo- 
ples hearts. 15. Smiths son is attending a boys school. 

16. Soldiers lives are less eventful than policemens lives. 

17. Our dinner consisted of frogs legs and pheasants wings. 

18. Kates example affected Marys character. 19. Hamlets 
unkindness caused Ophelias madness. 20. Laborers wages 
.depend on capitalists pleasure. 



Possessive 
singular 



Possessive 
plural 



Dickens's 
etc. 



Miscella- 
neous pos- 
sessives 
of nouns 



350 



EXERCISES 



Its 



Yours, 
ours, etc. 



Said he 
inter- 
polated 
and con- 
cluding 
a predi- 
cation 



Said he 

with 

semicolon 



Said he 
interpo- 
lated — 
miscella- 
neous 
examples 



743. Study Rules 486, 487. Write ten short sentences 
using the possessive its — not the contraction iVs (= it is), 
but the possessive its, used, e.g., in "The city has improved 
its streets." 

744. Study Rule 486. Write three short sentences using 
ours, three using yours, three using hers, and three using 
theirs. 

745. Study Rules 472-479. Write the following expres- 
sions, punctuating and capitalizing correctly: 1. You are 
my first patient the doctor said what is your name 2. Do 
not talk at random said Stevens too much improvisation 
leaves the mind void 3. Felix is a pretty name said she it 
is Latin I think 4. This is strange said Josephine the coach 
never stopped here before 5. Listen to me the mayor con- 
tinued there is still room for a man to slip under this cart 
and raise it 6. I will go at once he repeated does the old 
woman know the facts 7. Do not interrupt me now said 
the lawyer when my clerk returns you may speak to him 
8. Of course I have a mother replied the child hasn't every 
one a mother 9. I don't understand you said the peasant 
what underground passage do you mean 10. We must 
hurry along Charles said the old gentleman are you sure this 
is the right road 11. A mere spark was all that was needed 
he said the explosion was not surprising 12. This man has 
saved my life said Gauvain does any one here know who he is 

746. Study Rules 472-479. Write the following sen- 
tences, interpolating the bracketed expressions between the 
two predications in each sentence, and supplying the neces- 
sary punctuation : 1. Remove this rubbish ; I want the 
room clean [ he commanded ] 2. Do not stay long ; you 
will be wanted presently [ he said ] 3. I am sure it will be 
pretty ; his gifts always are [ she said ] 4. They are very 
good friends ; they might be taken for two sisters [ she ob- 
served ] 5. I have finished ; you may go now [ said his 
father ] 6. This is my own affair ; you must not interfere 
[ said the colonel ] 7. I must start at once ; the trial will 
occur to-morrow [the lawyer said ] 8. Tell him to wait; I 
shall come down presently [she said to the servant] 9. I 
have men enough ; there is no need of hiring others [ said 
Ryan ] 10. I knew nothing of this transaction ; George 
never mentioned it to me [ said I ] 

747. Study Rules 472-479. Write the following expres- 
sions, punctuating and capitalizing correctly : 1. Well 
Cosette the landlady said why don't you take your doll 



DESIGNATIVE PUNCTUATION 



351 



2. It is very simple the man replied she does it because it 
amuses her 3. I wish to go to bed now said the traveler 
where is my room 4. That sir Thenardier explained is my 
wife's wedding bonnet 5. By the way his wife continued 
don't forget that I mean to turn her out to-morrow 6. And 
suppose suggested Jean that you were rid of her 7. Where 
is Frances Street asked the old lady isn't it in this neighbor- 
hood 8. Sir he said I need fifty francs 9. Be silent my 
dear whispered the husband let's see what he will say 
10. You are right he exclaimed give me my hat and I'll fol- 
low him 11. I ought to have brought my gun he reflected 
the fellow may be obstinate 12. Well continued the officer 
we found the door bolted 13. What of that I answered does 
that prove any bad intention 14. I beg your pardon said 
Javert the offense was accidental 



748. Study Rules 472-479. Write the following expres- 
sions, punctuating and capitalizing correctly: 1. Who is he 
every one asked 2. The nun is dead remarked Fauch el event 
that is her knell we hear 3. Is she your daughter asked 
Henry if so of course she is welcome 4. That is the doctor 
going away the porter said to me he has probably not been 
able to relieve the patient 5. I don't understand you said 
Mrs. Bethune of whom are you speaking 6. I will do it 
Reverend Mother said Fauvent solemnly I will do it just as 
you direct 7. You have a gimlet remarked Jean Valjean 
make a few holes in the cover 8. If the weather is good I 
heard him say I will meet you here at>ten 9. Father said 
the child what is in that box that smells so nice 10. I do 
my duty said the woman you neglect yours 11. I prefer 
answered the soldier not to disobey orders. 12. What are 
you afraid of interrupted Clancy speak up and be quick 
about it 13. I advise you said Madeleine threateningly not 
to interrupt me at present 14. Do you wish asked the serv- 
ant to see my master 15. What did you say asked Bryce 
16. Is there any harm in that inquired the girl 

749. Study Rules 502-505. Write the following expres- 
sions, punctuating correctly : 1. More often do you say ? 
What do you mean by more often 2. Alas cried the Avoman 
where are my children 3. Shall I go and find them asked 
the priest 4. Instead of asking weakly will you please let 
me pass why didn't you say sternly let me pass 5. Great 
heavens exclaimed Bangs in a fury was ever a general ad- 
dressed in such terms 6. Was it not your duty asked my 
mother to remain at your post 7. He shrunk back toward 
the wall crying in the extremity of his terror my God my 



Said he 
interpo- 
lated — 
miscella- 
neous 
examples 



Quotation 
mark with 
question 
or ex- 
clamation 
mark 



352 



EXERCISES 



Para- 
graphing 
to be de- 
termined 



God 8. Do you know who it was who died saying don't 
give up the ship 9. Come sir brace up what do you mean 
by that melodramatic expression all is lost 10. She kept re- 
peating how wonderful how wonderful 11. His letter says 
is the messenger dependable how does he come to use that 
abominable word dependable 12. Ah cried the woman in 
high indignation how heartless how cruel 13. Why kill so 
many asked Cimourdain when two would suffice 14. Two 
said Imanus puzzled what two 15. What poem begins with 
the words this is the forest primeval 16. Have you ever 
heard the saying the pen is mightier than the sword 17. 
Do you consent asked Lantenac 18. Why do you come 
here thundered the old man who asked you to come 19. 
What is the meaning of the words the wind bloweth where it 
listeth 20. I asked is there fighting in Dol He answered 
yes my ci-devant seigneur is fighting another ci-devant 
What do you think he meant by my ci-devant seigneur 



Exercises in Paragraphing 






750. Study Rules 536-539. Make an outline showing 
the thought-components of the following passage. Show 
two ways of paragraphing the passage in accordance with 
the Canon of Unity, and discuss the comparative advantage 
of each way. 

1 Nature has stamped the Indian with a hard and stern 

2 physiognomy. Ambition, revenge, envy, jealousy, are 

3 his ruling passions ; and his cold temperament is little 

4 exposed to those effeminate vices which are the bane of 
6 milder races. With him revenge is an overpowering in- 

6 stinct ; nay, more, it is a point of honor and a duty. 

7 His pride sets all language at defiance. He loathes the 

8 thought of coercion ; and few of his race have ever 

9 stooped to discharge a menial office. A wild love of 

10 liberty, an utter intolerance of control, lie at the basis of 

11 his character, and fire his whole existence. Yet, in spite 

12 of his haughty independence, he is a devout hero-wor- 

13 shiper ; and high achievement in war or policy touches 

14 a chord to which his nature never fails to respond. He 

15 looks up with admiring reverence to the sages and heroes 

16 of his tribe ; and it is this principle, joined to the respect 

17 for age springing from the patriarchal element in his 

18 social system, which, beyond all others, contributes union 

19 and harmony to the erratic members of an Indian com- 

20 munity. With him the love of glory kindles into a burn- 

21 ing passion ; and to allay its cravings, he will dare cold 






PARAGRAPHING . 353 

22 and famine, fire, tempest, torture, and death itself. Para- 

23 These generous traits are overcast by much that is dark, graphing 

24 cold, and sinister, by sleepless distrust, and rankling to be de- 

25 jealousy. Treacherous himself, he is always suspicious termine d 

26 of treachery in others. Brave as he is, — and few of 

27 mankind are braver, — he will vent his passion by a 

28 secret stab rather than an open blow. His warfare is 

29 full of ambuscade and stratagem ; and he never rushes 

30 into battle with that joyous self-abandonment with 

31 which the warriors of the Gothic races flung themselves 

32 into the ranks of their enemies. In his feasts and his 

33 drinking bouts we find none of that robust and full- 

34 toned mirth which reigned at the rude carousals of our 

35 barbaric ancestry. He is never jovial in his cups, and 

36 maudlin sorrow or maniacal rage is the sole result of his 

37 potations. Over all emotion he throws the veil of an 

38 iron self-control, originating in a peculiar form of pride, 

39 and fostered by rigorous discipline from childhood up- 

40 ward. He is trained to conceal passion, and not to sub- 

41 due it. The inscrutable warrior is aptly imaged by the 

42 hackneyed figure of a volcano covered with snow ; and 

43 no man can say when or where the wild fire will burst 

44 forth. This shallow self-mastery serves to give dignity 

45 to public deliberation, and harmony to social life. 

46 Wrangling and quarrel are strangers to an Indian 

47 dwelling ; and while an assembly of the ancient Gauls 

48 was garrulous as a convocation of magpies, a Roman 

49 senate might have taken a lesson from the grave solem- 

50 nity of an Indian council. In the midst of his family 

51 and friends, he hides affections, by nature none of the 

52 most tender, under a mask of icy coldness ; and in the 

53 torturing fires of his enemy, the haughty sufferer main- 

54 tains to the last his look of grim defiance. His intellect 

55 is as peculiar as his moral organization. Among all sav- 

56 ages the powers of perception preponderate over those 

57 of reason and analysis ; but this is more especially the 

58 case with the Indian. An acute judge of character, at 

59 least of such parts of it as his experience enables him to 

60 comprehend ; keen to a proverb in all exercises of war 

61 and the chase, he seldom traces effects to their causes, or 

62 follows out actions to their remote results. Though a 

63 close observer of external nature, he no sooner attempts 

64 to account for her phenomena than he involves himself 

65 in the most ridiculous absurdities ; and quite content 

66 with these puerilities, he has not the least desire to 

67 push his inquiries further. His curiosity, abundantly 

68 active within its own narrow circle, is dead to all things 



354 



EXERCISES 



69 else ; and to attempt rousing it from its torpor is but a 

70 bootless task. He seldom takes cognizance of general or 

71 abstract ideas ; and his language has scarcely the power 
•72 to express them, except through the medium of figures 

73 drawn from the external world, and often highly pic- 

74 turesque and forcible. The absence of reflection makes 

75 him grossly improvident, and unfits him for pursuing 

76 any complicated scheme of war or policy. 

751. Study Rules 536-538. Make outlines showing the 
thought-components of the following passages, and show 
how they should be paragraphed : 



Para- 
graphing 
to be de- 
termined 



1 Perhaps the best way of describing Addison's peculiar 

2 pleasantry is to compare it with the pleasantry of some 

3 other great satirists. The three most eminent masters of 

4 the art of ridicule, during the eighteenth century, were, 

5 we conceive, Addison, Swift, and Voltaire. Which of 

6 the three had the greatest power of moving laughter 

7 may be questioned. But each of them, within his own 

8 domain, was supreme. Voltaire is the prince of buffoons. 

9 His merriment is without disguise or restraint. He 

10 gambols; he grins; he' shakes his sides; he points the 

11 ringer ; he truns up the nose ; he shoots out the tongue. 

12 The manner of Swift is the very opposite to this. He 

13 moves laughter, but never joins in it. He appears in 

14 his works such as he appeared in society. All the com- 

15 pany are convulsed with merriment, while the Dean, the 

16 author of all the mirth, preserves an invincible gravity, 

17 and even sourness of aspect, and gives utterance to the 

18 most eccentric and ludicrous fancies, with the air of a 

19 man reading the commination service. The manner of 

20 Addison is as remote from that of Swift as from that 

21 of Voltaire. He neither laughs out like the French wit, 

22 nor, like the Irish wit, throws a double portion of severity 

23 into his countenance while laughing inwardly ; but pre- 

24 serves a look peculiarly his own, a look of demure se- 

25 renity, disturbed only by an arch sparkle of the eye, an 

26 almost imperceptible elevation of the brow, an almost 

27 imperceptible curl of the lip. His tone is never that 

28 either of a Jack Pudding or of a Cynic. It is that of a 

29 gentleman, in whom the quickest sense of the ridiculous is 

30 constantly tempered by good nature and good breeding. 

31 We own that the humor of Addison is, in our opinion, 

32 of a more delicious flavor than the humor of either 



PARAGRAPHING 355 

33 Swift or Voltaire. Thus much, at least, is certain, that 

34 both Swift and Voltaire have been successfully mimicked, 

35 and that no man has yet been able to mimic Addison. 

36 The letter of the Abbe" Coyer to Pansophe is Voltaire all 

37 over, and imposed, during a long time, on the Academi- 

38 cians of Paris. There are passages in Arbuthnot's satiri- 

39 cal works which we, at least, cannot distinguish from 

40 Swift's best writing. But of the many eminent men who 

41 have made Addison their model, -though several have 

42 copied his mere diction with happy effect, none has been 

43 able to catch the tone of his pleasantry. In The World, 

44 in The Connoisseur, in The Mirror, in The Lounger, 

45 there are numerous papers written in obvious imitation 

46 of his Tallers and Spectators. Most of those papers have 

47 some merit ; many are very lively and amusing ; but 

48 there is not -a single one which could be passed off as 

49 Addison's on a critic of the smallest perspicacity. 

B 

- 1 On his way from Venice to Rome, he was drawn some Para- 

2 miles out of the beaten road by a wish to see the smallest graphing 

3 independent state in Europe. On a rock where the snow t0 be de- 

4 still lay, though the Italian spring was now far advanced, termmed 

5 was perched the little fortress of San Marino. The roads 

6 which led to the secluded town were so bad that few 

7 travelers had ever visited it, and none had ever pub- 

8 lished an account of it. Addison could not suppress a 

9 good-natured smile at the simple manners and institu- 

10 tions of this singular community. But he observed, 

11 with the exultation of a Whig, that the rude mountain 

12 tract which formed the territory of the republic swarmed 

13 with an honest, healthy, and contented peasantry, while 

14 the rich plain which surrounded the metropolis of civil 

15 and spiritual tyranny was scarcely less desolate than the 

16 uncleared wilds of America. At Rome Addison remained 

17 on his first visit only long enough to catch a glimpse of 

18 St. Peter's and of the Pantheon. His haste is the more 

19 extraordinary because the Holy Week was close at hand. 

20 He has given no hint which can enable us to pronounce 

21 why he chose to fly from a spectacle which every year 

22 allures from distant regions persons of far less taste and 

23 sensibility than his. Possibly, traveling, as he did, at 

24 the charge of a government distinguished by its enmity 

25 to the Church of Rome, he may have thought that it 

26 would be imprudent in him to assist at the most magnifi- 

27 cent rite of that church. Many eyes would be upon him, 



356 



EXERCISES 



28 and he might find it difficult to behave in such a manner 

29 as to give offense neither to his patrons in England, nor 

30 to those among whom he resided. Whatever his motives 

31 may have been, he turned his back on the most august 

32 and affecting ceremony which is known among men, and 

33 posted along the Appian way to Naples. 



Para- 
graphing 
to be de- 
termined 



Para- 
graphing 
to be de- 
termined 



1 One who wishes to progress in the art of writing and 

2 speaking should give much attention to the enlargement of 

3 his vocabulary. The more he succeeds in enlarging his 

4 vocabulary, the more variety, grace, appropriateness, and 

5 power of expression he will gain. In order to accomplish 

6 this object, he should first endeavor to enlarge the stock of 

7 words which he understands. In the subjoined list how 

8 many words are there the meaning of which you do not 

9 know with certainty and distinctness ? Look through the 

10 list asking yourself this question. Note all the words that 

11 do not convey a certain and distinct meaning to you, and 

12 master them at once by means of a dictionary. And in 

13 reading, treat in the same way all unfamiliar words you 

14 meet. A second means of enlarging one's vocabulary — a 

15 means more important, perhaps, than the first — is the 

16 constant endeavor to put the stock of words one knows 

17 into actual use. You are doubtless familiar with the 

18 meaning of many words in the subjoined list : you under- 

19 stand them clearly when you read them. But of these 

20 words that you know how many do you use in writing or 

21 speaking ? You should use them all ; but how many do 

22 you use ? Look through the list, asking yourself this 

23 question. Words in this list that you know, but do not 

24 employ, and words that you meet in reading and recog- 

25 nize as falling within the same class, — try constantly to 

26 get such words into habitual use. As an aid in this en- 

27 deavor, keep a notebook especially for this purpose. 

28 Whenever you think of, or notice in reading, a word that 

29 is not in your vocabulary but ought to be, write it in your 

30 notebook. Look over your list of words frequently ; try 

31 deliberately to use them on occasion, and presently you 

32 will use them spontaneously. 

D 

1 Last night I dreamt that it was an October evening, and 

2 that I was driving slowly along a country road, watching 

3 the sun setting behind the woods almost in front of me. 

4 When the sun was almost hid, my attention was drawn 



PARAGRAPHING 



357 



5 to a homestead just ahead of me to my left. The multi- 

6 colored leaves showed a variety of trees which shaded 

7 the large dooryard, in the farther part of which the house 

8 stood. Here and there the gold of the maple appeared 

9 more brilliant in relief against the plainer yellow of the 

10 ash and elm, while at opposite corners stood two tall oaks, 

11 like guards, still wearing their leaves green, as if defying 

12 the season. Farther back stood a large barn and cribs of 

13 corn, giving the place an appearance of prosperity. It 
1-1 was all so inviting that I turned in, for some reason, through 

15 the arched gateway and drove up the carriage road along 

16 the whitewashed picket fence to the gate before the house. 

17 The house had the appearance of a frame-covered log 

18 house, and stood facing the east rather than the road. It 

19 was painted in rather dull red, but in front had a large, 

20 square-pillared porch that looked restful in the twilight. 

21 Through the door the nicker of the first-lit lamp seemed 

22 to invite me to tarry awhile. I hitched my horse and 

23 approached the house, stopping to take a drink from the 

24 well near the porch. And before the voice which bade 

25 me enter woke me, I saw that this pleasant place was the 
'26 home where I had often run barefoot. 

752. Study Rules 539, 546-549. Show how the para- 
graphing of the following passages is faulty, and how the 
passages should be paragraphed. 



9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 



I admit that in external aspect there is a sad monotony 
in the larger towns of England also. Compare English 
cities with Italian cities, and most of the former seem 
like one another, incapable of being, so to speak, indi- 
vidualized as you individualize a man with a definite 
character and aspect unlike that of other men. Take 
the Lancashire towns, for instance, large and prosperous 
places. You cannot individualize Bolton or Wigan, 
Oldham, or Bury, except by trying to remember that 
Bury is slightly less rough than Oldham, and Wigan a 
thought more grimy than Bolton. 

But in Italy every city has its character, its memories, 
its life and achievements wrought into the pillars of its 
churches and the towers that stand along its ramparts. 
Siena is not like Perugia, nor Perugia like Orvieto ; Ra- 
venna, Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Ancona, Osimo, standing 
along the same coast within seventy miles of one an- 
other, have each of them a character, a sentiment, what 
one may call an idiosyncrasy, which comes vividly back 



Faulty 
para- 
graphing 
to be 
corrected 



f IP 



358 



EXERCISES 



Faulty 
para- 
graphing 
to be 
corrected 



20 to us at the mention of its name. Now, what English 

21 towns are to Italian, that American towns are to English. 

22 They are in some ways pleasanter ; they are cleaner, 

23 there is less poverty, less squalor, less darkness. 

24 But their monotony haunts one like a nightmare. 

25 Even the irksomeness of finding the streets named by 

26 numbers becomes insufferable. ' It is doubtless con- 

27 venient to know by the number how far up the city the 

28 particular street is. But you cannot give any sort of 

29 character to Twenty-ninth Street, for the name refuses 

30 to lend itself to any association. There is something 

31 wearisomely hard and bare in such a system. 

B 

1 Of the uniformity of political institutions over the 

2 whole United States I have spoken already. Every- 

3 where the same system of state governments, everywhere 

4 the same municipal governments, and almost uniformly 

5 bad or good in proportion to the greater or smaller popu- 

6 lation of the city, the same party machinery organized 

7 on the same methods, "run " by the same wire-pullers, 

8 and "workers." In rural local government there are 

9 some diversities in the names, areas, and functions of 

10 the different bodies, yet differences slight in comparison 

11 with the points of likeness. The schools are practically 

12 identical in organization, in the subjects taught, in. the 

13 methods of teaching, though the administration of them 

14 is as completely decentralized as can be imagined, even 

15 the state commissioner having no right to do more than 

16 suggest or report. So it is with the charitable institu- 

17 tions, with the libraries, the lecture courses, the public 

18 amusements. All these are more abundant and better 

19 of their kind in the richer and more cultivated parts of 

20 the country, generally better in the North Atlantic than 

21 in the inland States, and in the West than in the South. 

22 But they are the same in type everywhere. It is the 

23 same with social habits and usages. There are still some 

24 differences between the South and the North ; and in the 

25 Eastern cities the upper class is more Europeanized in its 

26 code of etiquette and its ways of daily life. But even 

27 these variations tend to disappear. Eastern customs be- 

28 gin to permeate the West, beginning with the richer 

29 families ; the South is more like the North than it was 

30 before the war. Travel where you will, you feel that 

31 what you have found in one place that you will find in 

32 another. The thing which hath been, will be ; you can 

33 no more escape from it than you can quit the land to live 

34 in the sea. 



GENERAL EXERCISE 



359 



A General Exercise 

753. Write the following passage, correctly punctuating, 
capitalizing, and paragraphing it : The principal peculiarity 
of professor collins was absent-mindedness this often led 
him to mislay or lose articles necessary to his business such 
as books lecture notes etc one day as he and another pro- 
fessor were walking down a street in the village in which the 
college was situated professor collins suddenly stopped 
looked perplexed and said why my notes for to-day's lecture 
have disappeared oh that's ail right said his friend smiling 
give an impromptu lecture the subject is too complicated for 
that answered professor collins' truly this is serious if I don't 
find those notes soon I must disappoint my class of forty 
law students what is that in your hand asked his friend a 
package I intended to mail at that last postbox was the 
answer it contains some copies of the law review my notes 
were in a separate envelope of about the same size wait for 
me a minute said the other professor with a knowing look 
he went to the post box which they had passed a minute 
before and took from the top of it a large envelope this he 
brought to professor collins saying don't lose these necessary 
things again professor collins delighted at being relieved 
from the anxiety w r hich he had been suffering seized the 
package and said gratefully thanks thanks to thee my worthy 
friend as Longfellow says in his poem the village blacksmith 
oh never fear I'll not lose them again at least not to-day. 



General 
exercise in 
spelling, 
punctuat- 
ing, capi- 
talizing, 
italicizing, 
and para- 
graphing 



GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY EXPLAINING 
GRAMMATICAL AND OTHER TECHNICAL 
TERMS USED IN THIS BOOK 

Absolute. A substantive with a modifier (usually a participle) attached 
to a predication but having no syntactic relation to any noun or 
verb in the predication is called an absolute substantive. An ab- 
solute substantive and its modifier are together called an absolute 
phrase. The italicized part of the following sentence is an 
absolute phrase: " The ivind being favorable, they embarked." 
For other examples see under Rules 408-413. 

Active. See Voice. i < 

Adjective. A word used to modify or limit the meaning of a substan- 
tive ; e.g., black, human old, beautiful, metallic, dry. 

Adjective phrase. See Phrase. 

Adjunct. Modifiers, objects of teerbs, and predicate substantives or 
predicate adjectives have tl\e general name of adjuncts. A modi- 
fier is said to be an adjunct' oi the element it modifies ; an object 
or a predicate substantive or adjective is said to be an adjunct 
of the verb it completes. 

Adverb. A word used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ; 
e.g., slowly, politely, accurately, very, too, then, up, down, out. 
For the distinction between adverbs and prepositions, see Prep- 
osition. Concerning conjunctive adverbs, see Conjunction. 

Adverbial clause. A clause used to modify an adjective, an adverb, or 
a verb ; e.g., "He is greater than his father was " (the italicized 
clause modifies the adjective "greater"); "He walked faster 
than I did " (the italicized clause modifies the adverb " faster "); 
"I will come if my salary is paid when it is due" (the clause 
"if . . . paid" modifies the verb "will come"; the clause 
"when . . . due" modifies the verb "is paid"). For other 
examples see under Rules 250, 348-366. 

Adverbial substantive. A substantive used to limit adverbially an ad- 
jective, an adverb, or a verb ; e.g., " It is worth ten cents " (" ten 
cents" limits the adjective "worth"); " He walked tioo miles 
r farther" ("two miles" limits the adverb "farther"); "He 
walked two miles " ("two miles" limits "walked" adverbially). 

360 



TECHNICAL TERMS 361 

Antecedent. The word, as used in this book, means the substantive to 
which any pronoun refers. In the sentence " He who runs may 
read," "he " is the antecedent of a who." In the sentence " He 
picked up a stone and threw it," " stone" is the antecedent 

of "it." 

Antithesis. A sentence or passage presenting a contrast. 

Appositive. A substantive attached to another substantive and denot- 
ing the same person or thing by a different name is called an ap- 
positive, or is said to be in apposition with the substantive 
modified. In the sentence "Edward the king is enjoying his 
favorite sport — yachting," ."king" is in apposition with "Ed- 
ward," and " yachting " is in apposition with " sport." — Concern- 
ing rhetorical appositives, see Kule 383. 

Appositive adjective. See Attributive. 

Arabic numbers. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. are Arabic numbers. 
The figures I, II, III, IV, V, etc. are Roman numbers. 

Article. The adjective the is called the definite article ; the adjective a 
or an is called the indefinite article. 

Attributive. An adjective immediately preceding its substantive and 
closely connected with it (e.g., "a big man," "the black ink," 
" happy children ") is an attributive adjective. An adjective less 
closely connected with its substantive and yet not a predicate 
adjective (q.-v.) is an appositive adjective ; e.g., "Angry and hurt, 
he refused to speak." "The Washington Monument, tall and 
white, appeared in the distance." 

Auxiliary. The verbs be, have, do, shall, will, may, can, must, and 
ought, with their inflectional forms {e.g., was, am, did, should, 
might, could, etc.), when they assist in forming the voices, modes, 
and tenses of other verbs, are called auxiliaries. The italicized 
words following are auxiliaries': "Have you gone ? " "I did not 
see," " He has not been heard," " I should be grieved if it was 
broken." 

Bare subject and predicate. See Subject. 

Cardinal number. The words one, two, three, and the corresponding 
words for other numbers are cardinal numbers ; the words first, 
second, third, etc. are ordinal numbers. 

Case. The different forms that a substantive takes when it stands in 
different syntactic relations are called cases. The form or pair 
of forms (singular and plural) that a substantive takes when it 
is the subject of a finite verb is called the nominative case ; the 
form or pair of forms that it takes when it modifies another sub- 
stantive by indicating a possessor is called the possessive case ; 



362 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 



of a 

iree 



the form or pair of forms that it takes when it is the object 
verb or a preposition is called the objective case. The three 
cases of typical nouns and of the principal pronouns that are 
inflected are shown in the tables of declension under Substan- 
tive. It will be observed that in the nouns the nominative and 
objective cases are identical, but that in the pronouns they are 
(with the exception of the nominative and objective singular of 
it) distinct. 

Clause. A group of words composed of a subject and a predicate and 
combined with another group of words likewise composed. In 
the sentence (a) " When I awake, I am still with thee," the two 
groups of words separated by the comma are clauses. A clause 
that plays the part of a constituent element (a subject, a predi- 
cate substantive, a modifier, etc.) in the clause with which it 
is combined is a dependent or subordinate clause (see Substan- 
tive clause, Relative clause, and Adverbial clause). A clause 
that does not form a constituent part of another, but makes an 
independent assertion, is a principal, or independent, clause. The 
italicized groups of words in the following sentences are principal 
clauses: (b) "If the rope breaks, he is lost." (c) " The bell 
sounded, and every one rose.'*'' A principal clause on which a sub- 
ordinate clause depends is called a governing clause — e.g. , the 
principal clause in sentence b, above. Clauses that play the same 
part in a sentence, whether they are alike principal or alike de- 
pendent, are called coordinate clauses. See, e.g., the two principal 
clauses in sentence c, above ; and the two dependent clauses in the 
following sentence : (d) " Though lam tired, and though my shoes 
pinch, I am going on." 

Common noun. A noun used to designate any member of a class ; e.g., 
man, ruler, country, city, street, building. A noun used to dis- 
tinguish an individual member of a class from other members is 
a proper noun; e.g., John, Anderson, Ccesar, Germany, Boston, 
Broadway, Acropolis. A proper name is an appellation of any 
kind (including proper nouns) used to distinguish an individual 
person or thing ; e.g., Henry the Second (or Henry II), Bevolu- 
tionary War, First National Bank, Democratic Party, Second 
Presbyterian Church, Domesday Book, Forty-first Street, Ohio 
Biver, Niagara Falls, Edgar County, Calegonian Literary So- 
ciety, Sumner High School, Columbia College, Morningside 
Park. 

Comparative. See Comparison. 

Comparison. When an adjective or an adverb is in the inflectional 
form that simply designates a quality or manner without indi- 
cating the degree in which that quality or manner is present, it 
is said to be in the positive degree ; this form is, with a few 



TECHNICAL TERMS 363 

exceptions, the shortest form the word can have — e.g., sweet 
strong, fast, hard. An adjective or an adverb is said to be in 
the comparative degree (1) when it is in the form which indi- 
cates that the quality or manner is present in a greater measure 
relatively to some standard (i.e., with a few exceptions, the form 
ending in er, as sweeter, stronger, faster, harder), or (2) when 
its positive form is combined with more (e.g., more sweet, more 
strong, more rapidly, more laboriously) . An adjective or an ad- 
verb is in the superlative degree (1) when it is in the inflectional 
form ending in st (e.g., sweetest, strongest, most, best), or (2) 
when its positive form is combined with most (e.g., most sweet, 
most rapidly). The formation of the three degrees of an adjec- 
tive or an adverb is called comparison. 

Complete independent predication. See Section 243. 

Component predication. See Section 241. 

Component (thought). See Section 536. 

Compound predication. See Sections 238-240. 

Compound relative. In " Give me what is dearest to you,' 1 " what " is 
a relative pronoun, subject of "is." But what is the object of 
"give"? The object of "give" is implied in the word "what" ; 
i.e.. "give me vohat is dearest" = "give me the thing which is 
dearest." The relative pronoun ivhat, thus serving as a relative 
pronoun and also serving to imply an antecedent, is therefore 
called a compound relative pronoun. Who and which, whoever, 
whosoever, ivhoso (archaic), whatever, and whichever are also used 
as compound relatives; e.g., "Tell me which you want," "Here 
is money for whoever wants it," " Send whoever wishes to go." 

Compound word. A word formed by the combination of two or more 
words which are (or once were) used separately in English — e.g., 
blacksmith ( = black + smith). A word formed by the combina- 
tion of a word which is used separately and a prefix or suffix 
which is not used separately in English discourse is a derivative 
word. Kingdom, for instance, is not compound, but derivative, 
for dom is used only as a suffix. Further examples : 

Compound words 

a castaway northwest 

dark-skinned outlet 

everlasting outstretch 

fearless overcome 

fishpole overfrequent 

gemlike penholder 

gentleman telltale 

horseback truthful 

income underbid 

inkwell whoever 

knee-deep nevertheless 



364 



GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 



Derivative words 

beguile northern 

brooklet princess 

calmness sharpen 

dishonest stealthy 

endear suckling 

heating sweeter 

manly warmth 

Conditional. See Mode. 

Conjugation. See Inflection. 

Conjunction. A word used to connect one word with another or one 
group with another; e.g., and, if, for. Conjunctions may be 
distinguished from prepositions (q.v.) by the following fact : 
Any conjunction can be used to connect one predication with 
another (e.g., "I opened the door when he rapped") — an office 
which a preposition cannot perform ; one of the two elements 
connected by a preposition must always be a substantive (e.g., 
" He fell into the cold water"). — Coordinating conjunctions are 
those which, when they join two predications, make those predi- 
cations of equal rank — neither dependent on the other; e.g., 
" i" called and they came." The principal coordinating conjunc- 
tions are the pure conjunctions, and, but, or, nor, neither, and 
for ; the correlative conjunctions, both . . . and, either . . . or, 
neither . . . nor; and the conjunctive adverbs, so also, there- 
fore, hence, however, nevertheless, moreover, accordingly, besides, 
thus, then, still, yet, etc. (See Sections 343, 393.) Subordinating 
conjunctions are those which, when they join two predications, 
make one of those predications subordinate to the other; e.g., 
" They came when I called." The principal subordinating con- 
junctions are if, though, whether, lest, unless, than, as, that, 
because, since, when, while, before, after, whereas, provided. 

Conjunctive adverbs. Words that are used sometimes as adverbs and 
sometimes as conjunctives. See Conjunction. 

Consonant. See Vowel. 

Construction. The grammatical office performed by any word in a 
given predication is called the construction of that word. For ex- 
ample, in "He walks fast," the construction of "he" is that 
of subject of " walks" ; the construction of "walks" is that of 
predicate of u he"; the construction of "fast" is that of 
adverbial modifier of "walks." 

Note. — The question " What is the construction of such and such 
a word?" is not answered by the statement that the word is a noun, 
or a verb, or some other part of speech. 

Question: In "Give it to me," what is the construction of "me" ? 



TECHNICAL TERMS 365 

Wrong answer : " Me " is a pronoun. 

Right answer: " Me" is the object of the preposition " to." 

Coordinate. Elements that are in the same construction within n 
predication are coordinate. In the predication " He and sh- 
talked long and earnestly and at last agreed, 1 ' "he" and "she,' 1 
"talked" and "agreed," "long" and "earnestly" are coor- 
dinate. » 

Coordinate clause. See Clause. 

Coordinating Conjunction. See Conjunction. 

Declension. See Inflection. 

Demonstrative pronouns. The words this and these, that and t&os-e^ 
when they are used as substantives; e.g., "That is not true," 
" What is this ? " When this, these, that, and those are used as 
adjectives (e.g., "this man," "those men"), they are called 
demonstrative adjectives. 

Dependent clause. See Clause. 

Derivative. See Compound. 

Direct address. Discourse in the second person (see Person, end). 

Direct question. See Direct quotation. 

Direct quotation (often called direct discourse). Quotation of discourse 
exactly as it was spoken or written; e.g., He said " I will help." 
Statement of the substance of quoted discourse without the use 
of the exact words is indirect quotation (or indirect discourse); 
e.g., He said that he would help. A question indirectly quoted is 
called an indirect question ; e.g., He asked whether I would help, 
A question directly quoted, or not quoted but directly asked, is 
a direct question ; e.g., Will you help f 

Elliptical clause. A clause from which the bare subject and predicate 
are omitted; e.g., " When young, I hunted rabbits" ("when 
young" is put for "when / ivas young"), "Though a gram- 
marian, he is human" ("though a grammarian" is put for 
"though he is a grammarian"). 

Expletive. A word occurring in connected discourse and, in its context, 
expressing no definite idea other than is expressed by other words 
in the context. The parenthetic (392) expletives yes and no serve 
merely to reenforce the thought of the predications with which 
• they are combined ; e.g., "Yes, I know it," "No, I have never 
been there." The parenthetic expletives why, now, and ivell are 
used merely to accompany a predication somewhat in the manner 
of a gesture ; e.g., " You know Wilkes. Well, last Sunday he 
and I went walking. Now, it was a pleasant day, and Wilkes 



366 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 

wanted me to go out to see the Mertouns in Clyde's Crossing. I 
said, ' Why, I don't know the Mertouns ' . . . " The word there 
is often used as an expletive adverb, in much the same way as 
a provisional subject (q.v.); for example, " There are many lions 
in Africa." " There is a hole in my pocket." " What is there 
for me to do?" "Would there were no sadness in store for 
you !" 

Finite. See Mode. 






Future. See Tense. 

Future perfect. See Tense. 

Gerund. A verb form ending in ing is called a gerund when it is used 
as a noun. When such a form is used as an adjective, it is called 
a participle. In the sentence "Coming close, he whispered," 
" coming" is used as an adjective modifying "he" and is there- 
fore a participle. In the sentence " His coming was expected," 
"coming" is used as a noun, the subject of "was expected," 
and is therefore a gerund. A gerund may fulfill the principal 
offices of a noun. It may be the subject of a verb {e.g., " Fishing 
is tiresome ") ; the object of a verb (e.g., "I hate fishing") ; the 
object of a preposition (e.g., "I have an aversion to fishing") ; 
a predicate noun (e.g., u What I most detest is fishing") ; an ap- 
positive (e.g., "That detestable amusement, fishing, I cannot 
endure") ; or an absolute noun (e.g., "Fishing being my aver- 
sion, let us not fish "). 

Gerund phrase. See Phrase. 

Govern. The relation between a verb and its object may be stated either 
by saying that the substantive is the object of the verb, or by say- 
ing that the verb governs the substantive. Likewise the relation 
between a preposition and its object may be stated by saying that 
the preposition governs the substantive. A clause, whether prin- 
cipal or subordinate, on which another clause depends, is said 
to govern the latter clause. In the sentence " She wept when she 
saw the injury that had been done," the clause " she wept " gov- 
erns the clause " when she saw the injury," and the latter clause 
governs the clause " that had been done." 

Grammar. The science that deals with (1) the classification of words 
with reference to the functions they perform in discourse (see 
Parts of Speech) ; (2) the inflection of words (see Inflection) ; 
and (3) the relations that words bear to one another in discourse 
(see Syntax). 

Imperative. See Mode. 

Indefinite pronoun. The words each, either, neither, some, any, many, 
few, all, both, one, none, aught, naught, somebody, something, 






TECHNICAL TERMS 367 

somewhat, anybody, anything, everybody, everything, nobody, and 
nothing, when they are used as substantives, are called indefinite 
pronouns. 

Independent predication. See Section 242. 

Independent clause. See Clauses. 

Indicative. The set of inflectional forms and of combinations with aux- 
iliary verbs that a speaker uses when he conceives the action of a 
verb as a fact, is not the same as the set he uses when he conceives 
the action as doubtful. Compare, for example,, the sentences " He 
is a coward " and " If he be a coward, he should be dismissed." 
The former set is called the indicative mode of a verb ; the latter 
the subjunctive mode. The indicative and subjunctive forms of a 
typical verb are shown on pages 379-384. 

Indirect question. See Direct quotation. 

Indirect quotation. See Direct quotation. 

Infinitive. That inflectional form of a verb which may be combined 
with to (as in the sentences "To err is human," "I wish to go," 
"He refused to move," "It is impossible to see") is called an 
infinitive when it is used in one of the following ways : (1) in 
combination with to, as illustrated above ; (2) in combination 
with an auxiliary verb (e.g., " I will go," "I can see ") ; (3) as 
the predicate of a substantive, the whole predication being the 
object of another verb (e.g., "It made me gasp," "I saw him 
smile") ; (4) in one of the constructions of a substantive (e.g., 
"Do you dare go in? " in which " go " is the object of " dare "). 
The word to when it is combined with an infinitive is not a prepo- 
sition ; it is merely a sort of prefix, serving no grammatical pur- 
pose except to show that the verb form following is an infinitive. 
For this reason it is called the sign of the infinitive or the infini- 
tive sign. The infinitive sign is not a necessary part of the 
infinitive. In the sentences " I cannot see," " I dare go," " Will 
you come?" "I heard the clock strike," "You had better 
speak," the words "see," "go," "come," "strike," and 
"speak" are infinitives, though the infinitive sign does not 
accompany them. In mentioning an infinitive, the infinitive sign 
may with equal correctness be put before the infinitive or be 
omitted ; thus we may say either "The verbs to stand and to sit 
are intransitive," or " The verbs stand and sit are intransitive." 
— The use of infinitives in various substantive constructions is an 
important matter for the student to understand. An infinitive 
may be used (1) as the subject of a verb (e.g., " To read history is 
instructive") ; (2) as the object of a verb (e.g., "I like to read 
history") ; (3) as a predicate noun (e.g., "An instructive occu- 
pation is to read history ") ; (4) as an appositive (e.g., " It is in- 



368 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 






structive to read history ") ; (5) as an absolute noun (e.g., " To 
read history being so instructive, let us read it") ; (6) as an 
adverbial noun (e.g., " History is instructive to read"). 

Inflection. Change in the form of a word to show variation of meaning 
(as with inflections of number, comparison, and tense), or to 
show the relation of a word to another word (as with the inflec- 
tions of case and person). The inflection of substantives is called 
declension, that of adjectives and adverbs comparison (q.v.), and 
that of verbs conjugation. The various forms that a word re- 
ceives in inflection are its inflectional forms; e.g., love, lovest, 
loveth, loved, lovedst, and loving are the inflectional forms of 
the verb to love; man, man's, men, men's are the inflectional 
forms of the noun man; see also the tables under Substantive 
and opposite Verb. The simplest inflectional form of a word is 
called the stem; e.g., of the forms love, lovest, loved, loving, 
loveth, the form love is the stem ; of the forms fair, fairer, fairest, 
the form /air is the stem. 

Intensive. The pronouns myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, our- 
selves, yourselves, yourself, themselves, and oneself, when they 
are used in apposition, are called intensives (e.g., "I myself will 
do it," " He saw the bishop himself"). When they are used as 
the object of a verb and designate the same person or thing as 
the subject of that verb, they are called reflexives (e.g., "I hurt 
myself," "They benefit themselves"). 

Interjection. A word that expresses emotion and that has no syntactic 
relations with other words; e.g., oh, alas, ha, ah, hello, hurrah, 
huzza. 

Interrogative pronoun. The words who, what, which, and whether 
(archaic), when they are used as substantives and in an interrog- 
ative sense (e.g., "Who are you?" "What do you want?" 
"Which do you choose?" "Whether of the twain is justi- 
fied?"), are called interrogative pronouns. What and which, 
when they are used as adjectives and in an interrogative sense 
(e.g., "What song did you sing?" "Which book do you 
choose?"), are all interrogative adjectives. 

Intransitive. See Transitive. 

Limit. The object of a verb is said to limit the verb ; the object of a 
preposition is said to limit the preposition ; and any modifier is 
said to limit the element it modifies. 

Mode. A mode of a verb is that set of inflectional forms and verb 
phrases which a speaker uses to represent the action of the verb 
in a certain mode (i.e. , manner). The set which he uses to rep- 
resent the action as a fact is the indicative mode ; that which he 
uses to represent the action as doubtful, the subjunctive mode ; 



TECHNICAL TERMS 369 

that which he uses to represent the action as conditioned on 
something, the conditional mode ; that which he uses to represent 
the action as permitted or possible, the potential mode ; that 
which he uses to represent the action as obligatory, the obligative 
mode ; that which he uses in giving a command, the imperative 
mode ; # that which he uses when he employs the verb as a sub- 
stantive, the infinitive mode (the forms constituting this mode are 
called A some infinitives and others gerunds) ; that which he uses 
when lie employs the verb as an adjective, the participial mode (the 
forms constituting this mode are called participles). The indic- 
ative, subjunctive, conditional, potential, obligative, and impera- 
tive modes are called finite modes ; the others, non-finite modes. 
(See also Indicative, Infinitive, Gerund, and Participle.) The 
different modes of a typical verb are shown on pages 379-384. 1 

Modifier. See Modify. 

Modify. A word which, by being combined in discourse with another 
word or expression, is made to mean something different from 
what it would mean if it stood alone, is said to be modified by 
that. other word or expression. Thus, the meaning of the sentence 
11 1 dislike oranges n is changed if we insert sour, so that the sen- 
tence reads " I dislike sour oranges " ; it is changed because " sour 
oranges" means something different from ''oranges" ; "sour" 
is therefore said to modify (t.e., change) " oranges." Likewise 
"many men" and "few men" mean something different from 
"men"; "many" and "few" modify "men." "Call softly" 
means something different from "call"; "softly" modifies 
"call." "I hate women who use slang" means something 
different from "I hate women"; "who use slang" modifies 
" women." A word or expression which thus changes the mean- 
ing of another word is called a modifier. — The modifiers of 
substantives are adjectives (including participles), adjective 
phrases, adjective clauses, appositives, and substantives in the 
possessive case. The modifiers of adjectives, verbs, and adverbs 
are adverbs, adverb phrases, adverbial clauses, and adverbial 
substantives. Vocatives and absolute phrases may be considered 
modifiers of predications. 

Monosyllabic. See Monosyllable. 

1 The classification of certain verb phrases as the conditional mode, the 
potential mode, and the obligative mode has been adopted here and in the 
paradigm on pp. 379 fr\, upon considerations which seem to me to outweigh 
the objections that may properly be made on philological grounds. These 
considerations are stated in Whitney's Essentials of English .Grammar, 
pp. 120 ff., particularly 126; and MacEwan's The Essentials of the English 
Sentence, p. 53. 



370 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 






Monosyllable. A word of one syllable (e.g., word, one, stop, strength) 
is said to be a monosyllable, or to be monosyllabic. 

Nominative. See Case. 

Non-restrictive. See Sections 334, 252. 

Noun. See Substantive. 

Number. When a substantive is in an inflectional form which shows 
that one person or thing is designated (e.g., boy, boy's), it is said 
to be in the singular number; when in an inflectional form which 
shows that more than one person or thing are designated (e.g., 
boys, boys'), it is said to be in the plural number. The forms con- 
stituting the singular and plural numbers of typical nouns and of 
the principal inflected pronouns are shown in the tables under 
Substantive. When a verb is in an inflectional form properly 
used with a singular subject (e.g., am, was, takes, goest), the verb 
is said to be in the singular number ; when in a form properly 
used with a plural subject (e.g., are, were, take, go), it is said to 
be in the plural number. (See pages 379-384.) 

Object. A substantive used in connection with a verb and designating 
the person or thing upon whom or which the action of the verb 
is represented as taking effect is called the object of the verb. In 
the following sentences the italicized words are the objects of 
the respective verbs: "I built a house," "I wrote a letter,' 1 '' 
Whom do you wish ? " A substantive that designates the person 
or thing directly affected by the action of a verb (as the objects 
in the foregoing examples do) is called a direct object ; one that 
designates the person or thing indirectly affected is called an 
indirect object — e.g., the italicized words in the sentences follow- 
ing : "I built my wife a house," " I wrote him a letter." — 
Regarding the object of a preposition, see Preposition. 

Objective. See Case. 

Ordinal. See Cardinal. 

Parenthesis. Matter which is parenthetic (see Section 392). Also, a 
parenthesis mark. 

Parenthetic. See Section 392. 

Parenthetic phrase. See Section 402. 

Part of speech. A part of speech is a body of words which all per- 
form the same function in discourse. The parts of speech gener- 
ally recognized by grammarians, as the classes into which all words 
in the English language are divided, are eight in number; viz., 
nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, con- 
junctions, and interjections. A single word (simple or compound) 



' 






TECHNICAL TERMS 371 

belonging to one of these classes is also called a part of speech ; 
e.g., we say that in u He brought a two-by-four," " two-by-four" 
is used as a single part of speech — that is, as a noun. 

Participial phrase. See Phrase. 

Participle. The word participle as ordinarily used means a verb form 
like moving or moved, when that form is used with the value of 
an adjective, as in " We are moving to-day," "The piano has been 
moved." For further information, see Gerund, Mode, and Verb. 

Passive. See Voice. 

Past tense. See Tense. 

Past perfect. See Tense. 

Perfect. See Tense. 

Person. The words I (with its inflectional forms me, we, etc. ; see 
the tables under Substantive), myself, ourselves, and the relative 
who, when its antecedent is one of the foregoing words, are 
called pronouns of the first person. The words thou (with its 
inflectional forms thee, you, etc.; see Substantive), thyself, 
yourself, yourselves, and the relative who, when its antecedent is 
one of the foregoing words, are called pronouns of the second 
person. The relative who, when used otherwise than as above 
mentioned, all other pronouns than those above mentioned, and 
all nouns, are said to belong to the third person. — A verb form 
or verb phrase that may correctly be used with a subject in the 
first person is said to belong to the first person of the verb {e.g. , 
am, are bound); one that may correctly be used with a subject 
in the second person is said to belong to the second person of the 
verb (e.g., art, hast, gone); one that may correctly be used with a 
subject in the third person is said to belong to the third person of 
the verb (e.g., is, does, has gone). (See pages 379 fL) — Discourse 
is said to be in the first person when the speaker designates 
himself by pronouns of the first person (e.g., the Twenty-third 
Psalm) ; in the second person when the speaker addresses some 
person or thing, using pronouns of the second person (e.g., the 
Lord's Prayer); in the third person when neither pronouns of 
the first person nor pronouns of the second person are used (e.g., 
the present sentence). 

Personal pronouns. The words I, thou, he, she, and it, together with 
their inflectional forms (see the tables under Substantive), are 
called personal pronouns. 

Phrase. The term phrase is often used to mean any short group of 
words; as "the slang phrase 'That's hard lines.' " But as the 
term is used in grammar, a phrase is a group of words not con- 



372 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 

stituting a predication. (A phrase may, however, contain a 
predication; e.g. "in the trunk which he brought.'''') A verb 
phrase is a combination of a principal verb and one or more aux- 
iliaries that is analogous to a single inflectional form (e.g., has 
gone, shall have done). A preposition phrase is a combination 
of words analogous to a single preposition (e.g., in regard to, as 
for). An adjective phrase is a phrase used to modify a sub- 
stantive (e.g., "A machine of great value"). An adverb phrase 
is a phrase used analogously to an adverb (e.g., "He fell into the 
water "). Any phrase consisting of a preposition and its object is 
a prepositional phrase (a term not to be confused with prepo- 
sition phrase) ; e.g., the adjective and adverb phrases above 
quoted are prepositional phrases. A participial phrase is a 
phrase consisting of a participle and its adjuncts (e.g., "Looking to 
the north, I saw the lake "). A gerund phrase is a prepositional 
phrase in which the preposition governs a gerund (e.g., in talking, 
instead of shooting). Concerning absolute phrases, see Ab- 
solute. 

Plural. See Number. 

Possessive adjective. The words my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, 
your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs, and whose are called 
possessive adjectives, or possessives, as well as inflectional forms 
of personal pronouns. 

Possessive case. See Case. 

Possessive substantive. A substantive in the possessive case ; e.g., 
"the king's- pleasure," "the rector's house," u Scott's novels," 
"my aunt's death." 

Predicate. See Subject. 

Predicate adjective. See Predicate complement. 

Predicate complement. A substantive designating what a verb asserts a 
person or thing to be is a predicate substantive (e.g., "He is 
& carpenter," "These are strawberries"). An adjective desig- 
nating a quality which a verb asserts belongs to a person or thing 
is a predicate adjective (e.g., "He is skillful," "These berries 
are sweet "). A predicative substantive, or a predicate adjective, 
or a phrase or clause used as the one or the other, is said to be the 
predicate complement of the verb it completes. 

Predicate substantive. See Predicate complement. 

Predication. See Sections 236 ff. 

Prefix. A word or a syllable put before is said to be prefixed, or to be a 
prefix ; e.g., in steamboat, steam is prefixed to boat ; in become, 
be is prefixed to come. A word or a syllable put after is said to 






TECHNICAL TERMS 373 

be suffixed, or to be a suffix ; e.g., in hammered, ed is suffixed to 
' hammer. 

Preposition. A word used to show the relation of a substantive to 
another word; e.g., in, on, into, toward, from, for, against, of, 
between, with, without, within, before, behind, under, over, above, 
among, at, by, around, about, through, throughout, beyond, across, 
along, beside. A preposition always requires to complete its 
meaning a substantive, with which it combines into what is felt 
to be a unit of expression; e.g., "in the water," u into the 
house," "among the leaves," "behind the house." This fact 
distinguishes prepositions from adverbs, which do not require 
a substantive to complete them; e.g., " Go out," " Come in," 
"Please walk before." (In, before, on, for, but, across, and 
many other English words belong each one to several parts of 
speech ; there is a preposition across and an adverb across, 
a preposition for and a conjunction for, etc.) For the distinction 
between prepositions and conjunctions, see Conjunction. The 
substantive combined with a preposition in the manner illustrated 
above is called the object of the preposition. 

Present. See Tense. 

Present third singular. A verb in the active voice, indicative mode, 
present tense, third person, and singular number ; e.g., is, goes, 
has, tells, seems, writes. 

Principal. Any modified element is called a principal with respect to 
its modifier ; and any modifier is called a subordinate element 
with respect to its principal. 

Principal clause. See Clause. 

Principal parts. The principal parts of any verb are (1) the present 
infinitive, (2) the past first singular, and (3) the past participle 
(see Verb); e.g., flee, fled, fled; choose, chose, chosen; love, 
loved, loved; set, set, set. 

Principal verb. A verb not used as an auxiliary, including the aux- 
iliaries themselves when they are used independently (e.g., "I 
have a boat," " He did wonders"). 

Pronoun. See Substantive. 

Proper name. See Common Noun. 

Proper noun. See Common Noun. 

Provisional subject. In the sentence "It is hard to make a living," 
"it" is called the provisional subject of "is," because, though it 
is grammatically the subject of "is," yet "to make a living" is 
the thing about which the speaker wishes to make the assertion ; 



374 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 






"it" is therefore said to be used provisionally, or temporarily, 
until the words "to make a living" are given. "To make a 
living" is called the effective subject, as distinguished from the 
provisional subject. The use of it as a provisional subject is very 
common. Other examples are " It is delightful to have you here," 
"It was a pity that he could not come," " How sad it is to see 
the old tree die ! " " What is it to grow old ? " 

Pure adverbs. See Section 343. 

Pure coordinating conjunctions. See Section 237. 

Relative clause. A clause used to modify a substantive in the manner 
of an adjective; e.g., "The rain that fell yesterday was a bless- 
ing" (the italicized clause modifies the noun "rain"); "The 
house where he used to live is vacant " (the italicized clause modi- 
fies the noun "house ") ; " There was once a city on the outskirts 
of which lay a pestilential morass'''' (the italicized clause modifies 
the noun "city"). For other examples see under Rule 336. 
Relative clauses are often called adjective clauses. 

Relative pronoun. The words that, who, ivhat, which, whoever, what- 
ever, and whichever, when they are used as substantives and in 
such a way that the clauses in which they stand are made rela- 
tive clauses (q.v. ) , are called relative pronouns. The words what, 
which, ivhatever, and whichever, when they are used as adjectives 
and in such a way that the clauses in which they stand are made 
relative clauses, are called relative adjectives. . 

Restrictive. See Sections 334, 252. 

Rhetorical. Pertaining to the impression conveyed by discourse to the 
reader's or hearer's mind. Distinguished from grammatical, 
which means pertaining merely to the way discourse is put to- 
gether, without reference to its effect on the mind. 

Rhetorical appositive. See Rule 383. 

Sentence. A sentence is (1) a complete independent predication, actual 
or virtual ; or (2) two or more such predications written with 
such punctuation and capitalization, or spoken with such slight 
pauses between them, as will indicate that they are to be taken 
as a rhetorical unit. All complete independent predications, 
actual or virtual, are sentences. Many sentences, however, are 
not single complete independent predications, but groups of such 
predications. For example, the following expressions are sen- 
tences, but none is a single complete independent predication : 
" I came, I saw, I conquered." " She was a princess ; I was but 
a Viking." "Must I obey you? must I crouch before yoii?'? 
See further page xi. 

Separate predication. See Section 241. 



TECHNICAL TERMS 375 

Simple predication. See Section 238. 

Singular. See Number. 

Stem. See Inflection. 

Subject. A substantive combined in discourse with a verb (except a 
gerund or a participle) and representing the person or thing 
regarding which the verb asserts something is called the subject 
of the verb ; and the verb, in turn, is called the predicate of the 
substantive, or is said to be predicated of the substantive. 
Thus, in the expression a He goes," u he " is the subject of 
"goes," and "goes" is the predicate of " he." The words sub- 
ject and predicate are often (in this book and elsewhere) used 
to designate respectively a subject and a predicate, as above 
defined, together with any adjuncts they may have. Thus in 
the predication " The plowman homeward plods his weary way," 
the phrase " the plowman " may be said to be the subject and the 
phrase "homeward plods his weary way" the predicate ; or the 
noun "plowman" alone may be said to be the subject and 
the verb "plods" the predicate. A subject without its adjuncts 
is called a bare subject ; a subject together with its adjuncts is 
called a complete subject ; e.g., " plowman " is the bare subject, 
"the plowman" the complete subject of the predication last 
quoted. Likewise, a bare predicate is a predicate without its 
adjuncts, and a complete predicate is a predicate together with 
its adjuncts ; e.g., in the predication quoted, "plods " is the bare 
predicate, " homeward plods his weary way " the complete predi- 
cate. — Concerning provisional subjects see that title. 

Subjunctive. See Mode and Indicative. 

Subordinate. See Principal. 

Subordinate clause. See Clause. 

Substantive. A substantive is a word by which, as by a name, some 
person or thing is called; e.g., man, house, happiness, beauty, 
song, speech, Jupiter, Charlemagne, he, she. A few substantives 
are called pronouns ; these are as follows : I, thou, he, she, it, 
and their compounds ending in self or selves; this, that; ivho, 
what, which, whether, and their compounds ending in ever or 
soever; each, either, neither, some, any, many, few, all, both, 
aught, naught, such, other, one, none, and a few others. The 
pronouns are divided into five classes : personal, demonstrative, 
interrogative, relative, and indefinite pronouns (see these headings 
in the Vocabulary). All substantives other than pronouns are 
called nouns. — The declension of typical nouns and of the 
principal pronouns that are inflected is shown in the following 
tables ; 



376 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 





Declension 


of Nouns 






Singular 




Plural 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


boy 

boy's 

boy 




boys 
boys' 
boys 


Nom. 


man 




men 


Poss. 


man's 




men's 


Obj. 


man 




men 



Declension of Pronouns 
Singular Plural 



Nom. 


I 


we 


Poss. 


my, mine 


our, ours 


Obj. 


me 


us 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


thou 

thy, thine 
thee 


ye, you 
your, yours 
you 


Nom. 
Poss. 


he 
his 


they 

their, theirs 


Obj. 


him 


them 


Nom. 
Poss. 


she 
her, hers 


they 
their, theirs 


Obj. 


her 


them 


Nom. 
Poss. 


it 

its 


they 

their, theirs 


Obj. 


it 


them 


Nom. 


who 


who 


Poss. 


whose 


whose 


Obj. 


whom 


wliom 



A substantive may be used syntactically in the following ways 
(which are explained in this Vocabulary under the appropriate 
headings): (1) as a subject, (2) as a predicate substantive, (3) as 
an appositive, (4) as a possessive substantive, (5) as the object of 
a verb, (6) as the object of a preposition, (7) as an adverbial 
substantive, and (8) as an absolute substantive. 

Substantive clause. A clause may be used as the subject of a verb 
{e.g., " That -he is a scholar is certain") ; as the object of a verb 
(e.g., " I know that he is a scholar ") ; as the object of a preposi- 
tion (e.g., u There is no doubt as to whether he is a scholar") ; 
as a predicate substantive (e.g., "The truth is that he is a 
scholar") ; as an appositive (e.g., "This is certain — that he is 
a scholar'''') ; as an adverbial substantive (e.g., "I am sure that 






TECHNICAL TERMS 377 

he is a scholar") ; and as an absolute substantive (e.g., " Granted 
that he is a scholar, he may yet be mistaken"). A clause used 
in one of these ways is a substantive clause. 

Suffix. See Prefix. 

Superlative. See Comparison. 

Syntactic. See Syntax. 

Syntax. The relations that words, when they are combined in discourse, 
bear to one another (e.g., the relation of "he" to ''goes " in the 
predication " He goes," or of "carpenter" to "Nelson," in the 
predication " Nelson, the carpenter, is here ") are called syntactic 
relations, or collectively- syntax. Syntactic relations comprise 
(1) the relations a single word may bear to another word or to a 
group of words (e.g., the relation of a subject to a verb, of an 
adjective to a substantive, of a noun to an adjective phrase, of a 
vocative substantive to a predication) ; and (2) the relations a 
predication may bear to another predication (viz., the relation 
between a principal and a dependent clause and the relation 
between coordinate clauses) . 

Tense. The several sets of forms and combinations that a verb has 
when it represents action as occurring at different points of time 
are called its tenses. Of these sets there are six, called respec- 
tively the present tense, the past tense, the future tense, the 
perfect tense, the past perfect tense, and the future perfect tense. 
The tenses of a typical verb are shown on pages 379-384. 

Transitive. A verb representing an action that necessarily affects some 
person or thing in such a way that the name of that person or 
thing may be made the direct object of the verb is called a tran- 
sitive verb ; e.g., love, hate, have, carry, build. A verb represent- 
ing an action of such a kind that a direct object cannot logically 
be used with the verb is called an intransitive verb ; e.g., stand, 
arise, be, come, whimper, bark, quarrel. Many verbs may be 
used either transitively or intransitively; e.g., a The fire burns 
brightly" ("burns" is intransitive); "He burns the paper" 
(" burns " is transitive) ; " The corn has grown " (' ' has grown " 
is intransitive); "He has grown a beard" ("has grown" is 
transitive). 

Verb. A word used to assert an action, a condition, or the undergoing 
of an action; e.g., stand, strike, choose, be, become, remain, 
suffer, undergo. 

The various inflections and combinations (see Voice, Mode, 
Tense, Person, and Number) of a typical verb are shown in the 
table on pages 379-384. In this table the words I, thou, he, we, 
you, they, and i/are inserted merely to show the way in which the 
forms they precede are used ; they should not be regarded as neces- 



378 GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 

sary parts of those forms, for they are not parts at all. Words 
inclosed in parentheses are variants of the words they follow. 

Virtual predication. See Section 244. 

Vocative substantive. A substantive that indicates to whom the dis- 
course is addressed; e.g., "Sir, I salute you"; "I know all 
about it, John." 

Voice. A verb is said to be in the active voice when it asserts that 
the person or thing represented by the subject is, does, or under- 
goes something; e.g., "He strikes," 4 'He heard," "I see." A 
verb is said to be in the passive voice when it asserts that some- 
thing is done to the person or thing represented by the subject ; 
e.g., "He is struck," " He was heard," " I am seen." With one 
exception all the passive forms of any verb are composed of the 
several forms of the auxiliary to be, and the past participle of the 
principal verb ; the one exception is the past participle itself. 
See the table opposite. 

Vowel. The letters a, e, i, o, and u are vowels. The letters b, c, d, f, 
g, h, j, k, I, m, n,p, q, r, s, t, v, x, and z are consonants. W when 
used as in weak and ywhen used as in young are. consonants; w 
when used as in hoiv and y when used as in try are vowels. 



GRAMMATICAL AND TECHNICAL TERMS 



379 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO TAKE 1 
Principal Parts : take, took, taken 



ACTIVE VOICE 



PASSIVE VOICE 



Indicative mode 





Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 






SIMPLE 






m 


1. 
2 

si 


I take we take 
thou takest you take 
he takes (taketh) they take 


1. I am taken 

2. thou art taken 

3. he is taken 


we are taken 
you are taken 
they are taken 


Eh 
Eh 




EMPHATIC POCfA 






CO 

w 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I do take we do take 
thou dost take you do take 
he does (doth) they do take 
take 

PROGRESSIVE r 
















1. 

2. 
3. 


I am taking we are taking-' 
thou art taking you are taking 
he is taking they are taking 










simple ro^n 








1. 

2. 
3. 


I took we took 
thou tookest you took 
he took they took 

EMPHATIC 


1. I was taken 

2. thou wast (wert) 

taken 

3. he was taken 


we were taken 
you were taken 

they were taken 


H 
Eh 

Eh 
CC 

53 


1. 
2. 

3. 


I did take we did take 
thou didst take you did take 
he did take they did take 






Ph 


1. 

2. 


PROGRESSIVE 

I was taking we were taking 
thou wast (wert) you were taking 

taking- 
he was taking they were taking 








3. 






b 

CC 
H 

PS 

p 

H 
P 




SIMPLE 






1. 

2. 

3. 


I shall (will) take we shall (will) take 
thou wilt (shalt) you will (shall) 

take take 
he will (shall) they will (shall) 

take take 

PROGRESSIVE 


I shall (will) be take 
hets fto ^^P n ^ 


n, etc. 




I shall (will) be taking-, etc. 







1 See the explanatory remarks under Verb, p 3*1 



380 



GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 



ACTIVE VOICE 



PASSIVE VOICE 



Indicative mode — continued 





Singular 


Plural 




H 

02 


simple 




En 

H 

u 

H 
& 
K 

W 


1. I have taken we have taken 

2. thou hast taken you have taken 

3. he has (hath) they have taken 

taken 

PROGRESSIVE 

I have been taking, etc. 


I have been taken, etc. 




SIMPLE 




1. I had taken we had taken 

2. thou hadst taken you had taken 

3. he had taken they had taken 


I had been taken, etc. 


h S 
3 


PROGRESSIVE 


P4 


I had been taking-, etc. 




is 

H 2 


SIMPLE 




p, z 

n K 


I shall (will) have taken, etc. 


I shall (will) have been taken, etc. 




PROGRESSIVE 

I shall (will) have been taking-, etc. 


h<3 S Wo -ewvpK &Ti C 



Subjunctive mode 





Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 




SIMPLE 






H 

02 


1. if I take if we take 

2. if thou take if you take 

3. if he take if they take 


1. if I be taken 

2. if thou be taken 

3. if he be taken 


if we be taken 
if you be taken 
if they be taken 


h 
h 


EMPHATIC 






53 
W 
02 
H 

a 


1. if I do take if we do take 

2. if thou do take ifyoudotake . 

3. if he do take if they do take 

PROGRESSIVE 

1. if I be taking- if we be taking 

2. if thou be taking- if you be taking- 

3. if he be taking if they be taking 







GRAMMATICAL AND TECHNICAL TERMS 



381 



ACTIVE VOICE 



PASSIVE VOICE 



Subjunctive mode — continued 



Singular 



Plural 



1. if I took 

2. if thou took 

3. if he took 



if we took 
if you took 
if they took 



EMPHATIC 

1. if I did take if we did take 

2. if thou did take if vou did take 

3. if he did take if they did take 

PROGRESSIVE 

1. if I were taking if we were taking: 

2. if thou were if you were taking 

(wert) taking 

3. if he were taking if they were taking 



Singular 



Plural 



1 . if I were taken if we were taken 

2. if thou were if you were taken 

(wert) taken 

3. if he were taken if they were taken 



[The future subjunctive is exactly like the future indicative, except that shall and 
will are unchanged throughout ; e.g., if thou will take, if thou shall he taken, 
etc.] 



[The perfect subjunctive is exactly like the perfect indicative, except that 7iave 
is unchanged throughout; e.g.] if thou have taken, if he have been taken, 
etc.] 



[The past-perfect subjunctive is exactly like the past-perfect indicative, except that 
had is unchanged throughout; e.g., if thou had taken, if thou had been taken, 
etc.] 



[The future-perfect subjunctive is exactly like the future-perfect indicative, except 
that shall and will are unchanged throughout ; e.g., if thou will have taken, if 
thou shall have been taken, etc.] 



382 



GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 



ACTIVE VOICE 



PASSIVE VOICE 



Conditional mode ] 





Singular Plural 






simple 




En 

Eh 

S 

Ph 


1. I should (would) we should (would) 

take take* 

2. thou would st you w~ould 

(shouldst) take (should) take 

3. he would (should) they would 

take . (should) take 


I should (would) be taken, etc. • 


PROGRESSIVE 






I should (would) be taking", etc. 




H 


SIMPLE 




B as 


I should (would) have taken, etc. 


I should (would) have been taken, etc. 




PROGRESSIVE 




PM 


I should (would) have been taking, etc. 





Potential mode 1 clawed, 





Singular Plural 


poSs'i bje av p*v va il+w a 




B 


simple 




w 
EH 

Eh 
H 

W 


1. I may of can we may or can 

take take 

2. thou mayst or you may or can 

canst take take 

3. he may or can they may or can 

take take 


I may or can be taken, etc. 




Ph 


PROGRESSIVE 

I may or can be taking-, etc. 








SIMPLE 








1. I might or could we might or could 

take take 

2. thou mightst or you might or 

couldst take could take 

3. he might or could they might or 

take could take 


I might or could be taken, etc. 




Ph 


PROGRESSIVE 

I might or could be taking, etc. 







1 See the footnote on page i 



GRAMMATICAL AND TECHNICAL TERMS 



383 



ACTIVE VOICE. 



PASSIVE VOICE 



Pctential mode — continued 





SIMPLE 




I may or can have taken, etc. 


I may or can have been taken, etc. 




4 PROGRESSIVE 




Ph 


I may or can have been taking, etc. 




U 

H 


SIMPLE 




i H 


I might or could have taken, etc. 


I might or could have been taken, etc. 


PROGRESSIVE 




CO 

•< 
Ph 


I might or could have been taking, etc. 









Obligative 


mode 1 




Singular 


Plural 




H 


simple 




aa 

B 

H 

H 
CO 
W 
OS 
Ph 


1. I must, or ought 

to, take 

2. thou must, or 

oughtest t o , 
take 

3. he must, wrought 

to, take 


we must, or ought 

to, take 
you must, or ought 

to, take 

they must, or 
ought to, take 


I must, or ought to, be taken, etc. 




progressive 






I must, or ought to, 


be taking, etc. 





SIMPLE 

I must, or ought to, have taken, etc. 

PROGRESSIVE 

I must, or ought to, have been taking, 
etc. 



I must, or ought to, have been taken, etc. 



Imperative mode 



Simple : take 
Emphatic : do take 
Progressive : be taking 



be taken 



1 See the footnote on page I 



384 



GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY 



ACTIVE VOICE 



PASSIVE VOICE 



Infinitive mode 






Simple infinitive : to take 
Progressive infinitive : to be taking 
Gerund : taking 



U K 



Simple infinitive : to have taken 
Progressive infinitive : to have been 

taking 
Gerund : having taken 



Infinitive : to be taken 
Gerund : being taken 



Infinitive : to have been taken 
Gerund : having been taken 



Participial mode 






En 

S § 

Ph 



Eh 



Eh 

U H 
H 02 

B h 

Ph 



taking 



K 



taken (used only with have) 



Simple : having taken 
Progressive : having been taking 



being taken 



taken 



having been taken 



INDEX TO THE RULES OF PUNCTUATION 
CLASSIFIED BY POINTS 

(Numbers refer to rules) 



THE PERIOD 

Correct Uses 

End punctuation 

General 257, 258, 248 
Before conjunction 259-261 
Relation to semicolon 276 
Before conjunctive adverbs 280 
Before for example, that is, etc. 284 
After interpolated said he 475, 476 
After oh 92 

Abbreviations 491 

With other points 
. Parentheses 423, 516, 518 
Quotation marks 504 
Incorrect Omission 292, 248, 282 
Incorrect Uses 

The period fault 463-467, ,255 

Before interpolated said he 474 

After parenthetic predication 286 

With question or exclamation mark 
502 c 

With Roman numbers 13 

"L.L.D." etc. 492 

At the beginning of a line 481 

THE COLON 

Correct Uses 
End punctuation 

General 257, 262, 248 
Before a group of sentences 274 
Before that is etc. 284 
Interior punctuation 
Appositives 

Announced 374, 375 
Rhetorical 383, 384 
With namely etc. 386, 387 
Salutations 434, 435 
Long quotation 471 
With other points 

Parentheses 423, 425, 518 
Quotation marks 505 
Capitals with 205-207 
Incorrect Uses 
Before series 462 
After namely etc. 285, 389 
After such as 431 
At the beginning of a line 481 



385 



THE SEMICOLON 

Correct Uses 
End punctuation 

General 257, 263-275, 294, 248 

Relation to period 276 
Before conjunctive adverbs 280 
Before for example, in fact, etc. 284 
After interpolated said he 475 
No capital with 204 
Interior punctuation 
Coordinate elements 

No conjunction 312, 314 
Clauses with conjunction 318. 

321, 249 
Series with one conjunction 327, 
330, 332 
Long concluding modifier 359 
With other points 
Dash 450 

Parentheses 423, 425, 518 
Quotation marks 505 
Incorrect Omission before conjunctive 

adverb 282 
Incorrect Uses 

Violation of sentence-unity 277 
Before so that and so as to 281 
Between short coordinate elements 

315, 331 
After such as 341 
After namely etc. 285, 389 
After introductory clause 354 
Before concluding modifier 360 
Before series 462 
At the beginning of a line 481 

THE QUESTION MARK 

Correct Uses 

End punctuation 257, 287, 289, 474 
Rhetorical effects 

Eager inquiry 529 

Conjecture 531 
With other points 

Parentheses 289, 420, 518 

Dash 289, 420 

Quotation marks 502, 503 
Misuses 

Indirect question 288 



386 



INDEX TO THE RULES OF PUNCTUATION 



Exclamative predication 290 

After said he 476 

Doubled, or with exclamation mark 

503 
Labeling humor 532 
At the beginning of a line 481 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT 

Correct Uses 
End punctuation 

Exclamative predication 257, 290, 
291, 474 

Declarative 278 

Before said he 474 
Vocatives 429, 432 
Interjections 436, 442, 92 
Rhetorical effect 528 
With other points 

Parentheses 291, 518 

Dash 291 

Quotation mark 502, 503 
Misuses 

After said he 476 

Doubled 503 

At the beginning of a line 481 

THE COMMA 

Correct Uses 

Erroneous junction 299, 253 
Erroneous non-junction 300, 301, 254 
Coordinate elements 
Without conjunctions 
Adjectives 305 
Other elements 312, 313 
With conjunctions 
Non-junction 316 
Clauses 317, 318, 249 
Other elements 323, 324 
Series with one conjunction 328, 
332 
Subordinate elements 
Adjective preceding 333 
Restrictive and non-restrictive 
General 335 

Relative clause 336, 251 
Participial phrase 337 
Adjective 338-340 
Adverbial phrases and clauses 
Introductory 

General 348, 366 
Clauses 349, 350, 250 
Phrases 351-353 
Comma before 355, 356 
Concluding 359-364, 250 
Interpolated 368 
Appositives 371, 372 
Parenthetic elements 
Conjunctive adverbs 
Introductory 395 

Comma before 397, 398 



Concluding 399 
Interpolated 400, 401 
Parenthetic phrases 
Introductory 403 

Comma before 404 
Concluding 405 
Interpolated 406, 407 
Absolute phrases 
Introductory 408 

Comma before 409 
Concluding 410 
Interpolated 411, 412 
Short predications 
i" think etc. 414-416 
Appended question 419 
Vocatives 

Introductory 429, 430 
Concluding 431 
Interpolated 432, 433 
Salutations 434, 435 
Interjections and expletives 
Introductory 436-440, 92 
Concluding 441 
Interpolated 442, 443 
Geographical names 444, 445 
Dates 446, 447 
With direct quotation 
Preceding 468 

Before interpolated said he 474 
After interpolated said he 477 
With other points 
Dashes 

Intervening words 304 a 
Emendation 308, 309 
Appositives 391 

Parenthetic predications 427, 428 
Syntactic substitute 450 
Afterthought 521, 522 
Parentheses 

Intervening words 304 b 
Parenthetic predications 423,425, 

426 
Diminished prominence 518, 519 
Quotation marks 504 
Incorrect Omission after — 
Intervening words 302 
Relative clause 342 
Appositive 373 
Conjunctive adverb 401 
Parenthetic phrase 407 
Absolute phrase 412 
i" think etc. 416 
Vocative 433 

Expletive why, well, now 439 
Interpolated interjection 443 
Geographical name 445 
Date 447 
Incorrect Omission before absolute 

phrase 409 
Improper or Unnecessary Use 
Comma fault 
General 293 



INDEX TO THE RULES OF PUNCTUATION 



387 



Conjunctive adverbs 279, 280 

For example, in fact, etc. 283, 284 

Interpolated said he 475 
Last adjective of series 306 
Restrictive adjective modifiers 

General 335 

Relative clause 336 

Participial phrase 337 

Adjective 338 ■ 
Adverbs 344 
Adverbial phrases and clauses 

Short introductory 347 

Comma preceding 355 

Concluding 358, 366, 250 

Short interpolated 369 
Restrictive appositives 

Nouns 381 

Clauses appositive to it, fact, etc. 
382 
Conjunctive adverbs 

After therefore etc. 394 

Before 397 
Before parenthetic phrase 404 
After absolute substantive 413 
He says etc. in relative clause 417 
/ say etc., introductory 418 
Before vocative 430 
. Before interjection 440 
Before short quotation 469 
Before quoted fragment 470 
Series 

Comma after 329, 306 

Before 462 
Before and 420 

After and 460, 355, 397, 404, 430, 440 
Before indirect quotation 454, 455, 

382 
Before that, how, whether, who, etc. 458, 

454, 455, 382 
After that 459 
Before what 456 
In what clause 457 
Before especially 360 
After especially 311, 362 
After such as 341 
In relative clause 453 
With dashes 304 a, 309, 391, 422, 428, 

522, 524 
With parentheses 304 b, 426, 519 
With exclamation or question mark 

502 c 
Superfluous use in general 452 
At the beginning of a line 481 

THE DASH 

Correct Uses 

Interrupted sequence 300, 303 
Emendation 307 

Especially 310 
Appositives 

Announced 374, 376 



Intervening words 377, 378 

Implied principal 379 

Adjacent commas 380 

Rhetorical appositives 383-385 

Namely etc. 386-388 
Parenthetic predications 420, 421 , 424 
Interrupted structure 448, 449, 451 
Afterthought 520, 523, 525 
Pause 526 
Faltering 451 

Between terminal numbers 170-172 
With other points 

Comma 304, 308, 309, 391, 427, 
428, 450, 521, 522 

Question mark 289, 420 

Exclamation mark 291 
At the beginning of a line 481 
Misuses 

Indiscriminate use 480 
For end point 525 
Between numbers 171, 172 

PARENTHESES 

Correct Uses 

Interrupted sequence 300, 303 
Parenthetic predications 420, 421, 424 
Diminished prominence 515, 517 
Repeated numbers 169 
With other points 

Period 423, 516, 518 

Colon 423, 425, 518 

Semicolon 423, 425, 518 

Comma 423-426, 518, 519 

Question mark 289, 420, 531, 532 

Exclamation mark 291 

Quotation marks 507 
Misuses^ 

Insertion 41 

Erasure 46 

Interpolation in quoted matter 506 

Repeated numbers 168 

Sundry 534 

Initial parenthesis at end of line 535 

BRACKETS 

Correct Use 506 
Misuses 

Insertion 41 

Erasure 46 

Sundry 534 

Initial bracket at end of line 535 

THE APOSTROPHE 

Correct Form 8 
Correct Uses 

Possessive case 482^85, 488 

Plural of letters etc. 489 

Contractions 493, 494 



388 



INDEX TO THE RULES OF PUNCTUATION 



Incorrect Omission 

General 483-485, 493 

One's, ones' 488 

O'clock 494 
Misuses 

"Dicken's" etc. 483 

Yours etc. 486 

Its 488 

Plurals 490 

"Does'nt" etc. 493 

Till and round 495 



THE HYPHEN 

Correct Uses 
Compound words 

General 102-124 

Numbers 136, 138, 139 
Divided words 173-179 
Correct Position 183 
Incorrect Uses 

With solid words 125-129, 133-135 
With separate words 130-135 
With numbers 137, 139 
With divided words 

General 173, 174 

Monosyllables 180, 181 

One letter 182 
At the beginning of a line 183 



QUOTATION MARKS 

Correct Form 8 
Initial and Terminal, 230 
Correct Uses 
Direct quotations 
General 496, 499 
Exclusion of interpolated matter 

473, 507 
Quotation within quotation 500, 514 
Several paragraphs 501 
Separative punctuation with 468- 

479 
Capitals with 210-212 
Technical terms 508 
Apology 510 
With other points 

Question or exclamation mark 502, 

503 
Period or comma 504 
Colon or comma 505 
Incorrect Omission 499, 473 
Misuses 

Indirect quotation 496 
Original assertions 497 
Consecutive sentences 498 
Technical terms 509 
Misplaced apology 511-514 
Sundry 533 

Initial quotation mark at end of line 
535 



GENERAL INDEX 



Only numbers preceded by "p." refer to pages. Other numbers refer to rules 
or exercises — those less than 600 to rules, those greater than GOO to exercises. 

Explanations of grammatical and other technical terms are in general not cited 
below, since they can be found in the alphabetical vocabulary on pages 360-378. 

Many words mentioned in the sections on spelling and on the use or non-use 
of the hyphen are not cited below; such words can be found through the cita- 
tions under Spelling, Hyphen, and Solid. 



A (article) in titles, 221, 222. 

A.D., 143 i. 

A.M., 143J. 

A while and awhile, 133, 666. 

Abbreviations, 140-148, 676; period 
with, 491, 492. 
. Above, hyphen with, 114, 115. 
' Absolute phrases, punctuation with, 
408-413, 466. 

Absolute substantive, incorrect comma 
after, 413. 

Accent marks, 99. 

Accept, 85, 636. 

Accidentally, 71, 628. 

Accommodate, 98. 

Accordingly, end punctuation with, 248, 
279, 280, 694, 695 ; interior punctu- 
ation with, 394-401. 

Accurate citation, 220. 

Accustom, 642. 

Addison, paragraph exercises concern- 
ing, 751. 

Adjacent commas, 303, 380. 

Adjective modifiers, 305, 306, 333- 
341. 

Adjective phrases, 333-341, 707-710. 

Adjectives, 305, 333, 338. 

Advantage, canon of, 538, 564 ff. 

Adverbial clauses, 343-370, 250, 711, 
712. 

Adverbial phrases, 343-370. 

Adverbs, 343, 344. 

Advice, advise, 76, 637. 

Affect and effect, 87, 638. 

Afterthought, 520-525; emendation, 
307. 

Age, numbers designating, 161. 

Al, prefix, 82, 635. 

All ready and already, 88, 639. 

All right, 83, 661. 

Already, 82, 88, 635, 639. 

" Alright,' ' 83, 661. 



Also, end punctuation with, 279, 280; 
interior, 394-401. 

Alterations in MS., 41-50. 

American cities and life, paragraph 
exercises concerning, 752. 

Amputated conclusions, 581, 582. 

And, written obliquely, 15; beginning 
sentence, 259-261 ; joining clauses, 
317-321, 703; joining other ele- 
ments, 316, 322-332; superfluous 
comma before, 320 ; after, 460 ; see 
also And and but. 

And and but, superfluous commas after, 
when they precede adverbial 
clauses and phrases, 355; con- 
junctive adverbs, 397; parenthetic 
phrases, 404; vocatives, 430; in- 
terjections, 440; in general, 460. 

Andromeda, quotation from, 602. 

Angel and angle, 640. 

Announced appositives, 374-376. 

Any one and anybody, 132, 673. 

Any way and anyway, 135, 668. 

Anybody and any one, 126, 132, 673. 

Anyway and any way, 135, 668. 

Apology, by quotation marks, 510-514. 

Apostrophe. See p. 387. Exercises in 
use of, 739-742. 

Appended question, 419, 420. 

Appositives, 371-391, 713, 714; period 
fault with, 464. 

Articles in titles, 221, 222, 202. 

As a matter of fact, end punctuation 
with, 283-285; interior, 402-407. 

Asterisk, 43. 

Athletics, essays on, pp. 255, 266. 

Attributive expressions, hyphen with, 
114-117, 124, 137139. 

Autobiography of N. D. Pinkerton, p. 
268. 

Automobile, essay on, p. 260. 

Awhile and a while, 133, 666. 



389 



390 



GENERAL INDEX 



B.C., 143 h. 

Because, comma before, 363, 364. 

Believe, 96, 655. 

Besides, end punctuation with, 279, 

280, 694, 695; interior, 395. 
Body, pronouns in, 126, 132, 673. 
Brackets. See p. 387. 
Bulldog, narrative about, 665. 
Burns's etc., 483, 741. 
Business, 66, 622. 
But. See And and but. 

Cancellation, method of, 46; to improve 
paragraph or composition, 554, 
575-578. 

Canon of advantage, 538, 564 ff. 

Canon of unity, 538 ff. 

Capitals, 184-215, 679-681. 

Caret, 41, 42. 

Carriage, 66, 623. 

Celia, 96, 655. 

Cents, 154-160. 

Cf., 145. 

Ch., 145. 

Chap., 145. 

Chicago, University of, p. 228. 

Child labor, essay on, p. 232.. 

Children's, 485. 

Cincinnatus Jones, 677. 

Cities, discussion of, 752. 

Clauses, adverbial, 250, 346-370, 711, 
712; coordinate, 249, 313-315, 
317-321, 703-706; dependent, pe- 
riod fault with, 467; relative, 251, 
252, 334-336, 342, 707, 708; sub- 
stantive, 382, 454, 455. See also 
Dependent clauses. 

Clothes and cloths, 641. 

College Work, My (essay), p. 281. 

Collins, Professor, narrative about, 753. 

Colon. See p. 385. Exercise in use of, 
738. 

Comma. See p. 386. Exercises in use 
of, 683, 700-716, 721, 722. 

Comma fault, 293-298, pp. x-xiv, 683, 
698, 699. 

Commas, superfluous. See p. 387. 
Exercises concerning, 717, 718. 

Common nouns, capitalization of, 191- 
195, 215, 681. 

Component, thought, 536. 

Compositions, structure of, 551, 562, 
572 583 

Compound words, 102-139, 665-675. § 

Concluding paragraphs, 542, 544; vio- 
lating unity, 555; fatuous, 578; 
amputated, 581, 582. 

Conclusion of a composition, 542; of a 
thought-component, 544. 

Concrete narration, p. 262. 

Conjecture indicated by question mark, 
531, 532. 



Conjunctions, coordinating, enumerated, 
237; joining clauses, 317-321, 703- 
706; joining other elements, 316, 
322-332; superfluous commas be- 
fore, 320 ; after, when they precede 
adverbial clauses and phrases, 355; 
conjunctive adverbs, 397; paren- 
thetic phrases, 404; vocatives, 
430: interjections, 440; in general, 
460 ; beginning a sentence, 259-261. 

Conjunctive adverbs, defined, 344, 393; 
end punctuation with, 248, 279, 
280, 689-695; interior punctua- 
tion with, when introductory, 394- 
398, when concluding, 399; when 
interpolated, 400, 401, 702. 

Contractions, 493^195. 

Conversation, punctuation of, 468-479, 
496-505, 745-749; paragraphing 
of, 589, 753. See also Direct quo- 
tation. 

Convict ship, narrative about, 684. 

Coordinate adjectives, 305. 

Coordinate clauses, without conjunc- 
tions, 312-315; with conjunctions, 

249, 317-321, 703-706. 
Coordinate elements other than adjec- 
tives and clauses: without conjunc- 
tions, 307-315; with conjunctions, 
.316, 322 ff . ; in series with one con- 
junction, 327-332. 

Costume and custom, 642. 
Courageous, 62, 617. 
Cross-stroke of t and x, 5-7. 
Crowding in MS., 16-20. 
Custom and costume, 642. 

Dash. See p. 387. 

Dates, numbers in, 149-151; punctu- 
ation of, 446, 447; exercise con- 
cerning, 716. 

Days of the week, 184, 679. 

De (prefix), words beginning with, 84. 

Declarative predications, 257-286, 
248; declarative form used in 
question, 287. 

Defence of athletics, essay on, p. 255. 

Dependent clauses, preceding principal, 

250, 346-356, 711, 712; follow- 
ing principal, 250, 357-366; 
interpolated, 370; period fault 
with, 467; relative, 251, 252, 
334-336, 342, 707, 708; substan- 
tive, introduced by that, how, 
whether, who, which, what, etc., 
superfluous commas with, 384, 
454; with that omitted, 455; 
result, introduced by that, 458; 
what, 456, 457. 

Designative punctuation, 231, 482 ff., 

739 ff. 
Device and devise, 86, 637. 



GENERAL INDEX 



391 



Devil-fish, narrative about, 685. 

Dialogue, punctuation of, 468-479, 
496-505, 745-749; paragraphing 
of, 589, 753. See also Direct 
quotations. 

Dickens's, 483, 741. 

Dictation exercises, in spelling, 664; 
hyphening, 665, 675; writing 
"solid," 675; representation of 
numbers, 677; capitalizing, 681; 
italicizing, 682. 

Die, dying, 67, 624. 

Diminished prominence, 515-519. 

Direct address, substantives used in, 
429-435, 715. 

Direct questions. See Questions. 

Direct quotations, capitalization .of, 
210-212; points preceding, 468- 
471; with said he interpolated, 
472-479, 745-748; quotation 
marks with, 496-505, 745-749, 
753; paragraphing of, 584-590, 
601, 753. 

Disappear and disappoint, 101, 662. 

Division of words at ends of lines, 173- 
183, 678. 

Dog, narrative about, 665. 

Dollar sign ($), 154-160, 677. 

Dollars and cents, 153-160, 677. 

Dormitory, essay on thefts in, p. 233. 

Dots above i's and j's, 5, 6. 

Doubled final consonants, 52-59, 607- 
613. 

Doubled initials (abbreviations), 145, 
492. 

Dream of old home, essay on, 751 D. 

Drown, drowned, 101, 643. 

Dying, 67, 624. 



e, final, dropped, 61, 615, 616; re- 
tained, 62, 63, 617-619. 

E.g., meaning and use of, 143 b; end 
punctuation with, 283-285; in- 
troducing an appositive, 386-389. 

East, west, etc., when capitalized, 197, 
681. 

Effect and affect, SI, 638. 

el and le, words in, 80. 

Elizabeth, essay on, pp. 215 fif. 

Elliptical clauses, 350. 

Embarrass, 98. 

Emendation, rhetorical, 307. 

Emphasis, secured by italics, 226; by 
paragraphing, 563; misuse of 
parentheses for, 534 a. 

End punctuation, 245, 246, 248, 
257 ff., 683-699, 734-738, 745, 746. 

Erasure, 46. 

Erroneous junction, 253, 299, 700. 

es and s, plurals in, 73, 629; present 
third singulars in, 77, 631. 



Especially, introducing emendation, 
310, 311; introducing adverbial 
phrase or clause, 360, 362. 

Esq., 148. 

£t seq., 145. 

Etc., meaning and use of, 143 /; not to 
be preceded by and, 143 /, note; 
spelling, 101. 

Ether, essay on, p. 232. 

Ever, words in, to be written " solid/' 
126, 129, 670. 

Every one and everybody, 132, 673. 

Everybody, 126, 132, 673. 

ex, prefix of titles, hyphen with, 103; 
not to be capitalized, 201. 

Except and accept, 85, 636. 

Exclamation mark. See p. 386. Ex- 
ercise concerning, 749. 

Exclamative predications, 290, 291; 
mistaken for questions, 290. 

Exercises, 601 ff. 

Expansion of part of a composition, 
579, 581, 582 B, 582 B, note. 

Expletives, 436-443. 

Extemporized words, not to be quoted, 
533 d, in -like, 107, 108; in 
-fashion, 121; singly construed 
phrases, 124. 

Extended quotations, set apart from 
context, 38; colon preceding, 
471; quotation marks beginning 
each paragraph, 501. 

ey, words in, 81; plural of words in, 
64, 620. 

/, final, changed to v, 74, 630. 

Fact, with that clause in apposition, 382. 

Factory, essays on, pp. 224, 232, 252. 

Faltering utterance, 451. 

Farm life, essay on, p. 284. 

Fashion, adverbs in, 121. 

Fatuous introduction, 377; conclusion, 
378. 

Federal and state, 189. 

Ff., 145, 492. 

Figures. See Numbers. 

Final consonants doubled, 52-59, 
607-613. 

Final e, dropped, 61, 615, 616; re- 
tained, 62, 63, 617-619. 

Final el, 80. 

Final ey, 81, 64, 620. 

Final /, changed to v, 74, 630. 

Final ie, changed to y, 67, 624. 

Final I, before ly, 70, 627. 

Final le, 80, 634. 

Final letters, careless omission of, 100. 

Final n before ness, 69, 626; doubled, 
613. 

Final p doubled, 611. 

Final paragraphs. See Concluding 
paragraphs. 



392 



GENERAL INDEX 



Final r doubled, 610. 
Final t doubled, 612. 
Final y, plural of nouns in, 64, 73 b, 

620, 629; present and past of 

verbs in, 65, 77 &, 621, 631; 

changed to i before suffixes, 66, 

622, 623; retained before ing, 68, 

625. 
Finally, 70, 627. 
Folios, 21, 149. 

For, comma before, 319, 704, 705. 
For example, end punctuation with, 

283-285, 736; introducing .ap- 

positive, 386-389, 736. 
Foreign words, italicized, 225; accent 

marks with, 99; German nouns, 

199. 
Formally and formerly, 644. 
Fra Angelico, p. 230. 
Fractions, 139. 
Frolicked etc., 60, 614. 
Ful, adjectives ending in, 78, 632. 

Gaps within a word, 14. 

Geographical names, comma with, 444, 
445, 716. 

German nouns, 199. 

Gerund phrases, 351. 

Gettysburg speech, p. 210. 

Good-by, hyphened, 123; end punctua- 
tion with, 244, 257. 

Grammatical terminology, 234, p. 109. 

Grammatical vocabulary, pp. 3.60 ff. 

Grandfather's farm, 675. 

Grocers' bills, 141. 

Half, hyphen with, 106, 139. 

Handwriting, 4-20. 

Hanging indention, 39. 

Headings, 22, 533 a. 

Hear and here, 645. 

Hence, end punctuation with, 279, 280, 
694, 695; interior, 394-398. 

Hers, 486, 743. 

Hesitating utterance, 451. 

Hours of the day, 162, 163, 143 j. 

House numbers, 149. 

How, superfluous comma before, 382, 
454. 

However, end punctuation with, 248, 
279, 280, 691; interior punctua- 
tion with, when introductory, 395, 
396, 691; when concluding, 399; 
when interpolated, 400, 401, 702. 

Hyphen. See p. 388. 

Hyphened words, 103-124, 665, 675. 

I.e., meaning and use of, 143 «; end 
punctuation with, 283-285; in- 
troducing an appositive, 386-390. 

Ibid., 145. 

Id., 145. 



ie, final, changed to y, 67, 624. 

Ill, hyphen with, 114, 115. 

Imperative predications, 257-286, 
248. 

In fact, end punctuation with, 283-285, 
696 ; introducing appositives, 386- 
389; not "solid," 131, 674. 

In order, not "solid," 131, 674. 

In spite, not "solid," 131, 674. 

Inaccurate citation of titles, 220. 

Incident, 101, 646. 

Incidentally, 71, 628. 

Incubator, essay on, p. 249. 

Indeed, end punctuation with, 279, 
280; interior, 394-401. 

Indention of paragraphs, 26-33, 585 ff., 
601; of lines of verse, 34, 35, 602; 
t hanging, in tables, 39. 

Indian, passage concerning, 750. 

Indirect questions, 288. 

Indirect quotations, superfluous commas 
before, 454, 455, 382; no quota- 
tion marks with, 496; questions, 
288. 

Infinitive phrases, comma after, 352. 

Inquiry, eager, 529, 530. 

Insertion in Ms., 41-45. 

Intensives, superfluous commas with, 
461; "solid," 126, 669. 

Inter-class athletics, p. 266. 

Interior punctuation, 245, 246, 249- 
255, 299 ff., 683, 700 ff. 

Interjections, 436-443. 

Interpolated elements, in general, 254, 
300-303, 701, 702; adverbial 
phrases and clauses, 367-370; 
appositives, 372 ff. ; conjunctive 
adverbs, 400, 401, 702; paren- 
thetic phrases, 406, 407, 411, 
412; parenthetic predications, 
415-417, 420, 424-428; voca- 
tives, 432, 433, 715; interjections, 
442, 443; geographical names, 
444, 445, 716; time expressions, 
446, 447, 716; said he in direct 
quotations, 472 T 479, 745-748; 
other matter in direct quotations, 
506, 507. 

Interrogation point. See p. 385. Ex- 
ercises, 749, 753. 

Interrogative predications, 287-289; 
parenthetic, 419, 420. See Ques- 
tions. 

Interrupted sequence, 254, 300-303, 
701, 702. 

Interrupted structure, 448-451. 

Intervening words, 254, 300-303, 701, 
702. 

Introduction, paragraphs of, 541, 543; 
unity violated in, 561; fatuous, 
577. 

Irrelevant material in paragraphs, 



GENERAL INDEX 



393 



550 ff. ; made relevant, in general, 
556, by subordination, 557; by 
addition, 558. 

It, provisional subject, 382. 

Italics, 216-228, 682. 

Its, 487, 743. 

* in trafficked etc., 60, 614. 
Kingsley, quotation from, 602. 

I, final, before ly, 70, 627. 

7., II. , abbreviations, 145, 492. 

Labeling humor by italics, 227; by 

question mark, 532 ; by quotation 

marks, 533 /. 
U Allegro, 605, 606. 
Landladies, essay on, p. 269. 
Languages, names of, capitalized, 198, 

680. 
Later and latter, 647. 
le, words in, 80, 634. ■ 
Lead and led, 89, 648. 
Letters, shape of, 4-7; plural of, 489; 

wrong enclosure of, in quotation 

marks, 533 c; in parentheses, 

534 d. 
Letters (correspondence), abbreviations 

in, 140. 
Lie, lying, 67, 624. 
like, adjectives in, 107, 108. 
Lincoln, essays on, pp. 263, 270. 
Lincoln's Gettysburg speech, p.' 210. 
Lines in MS., 16-20; of poetry, 34-36, 

602-606. 
Literary titles. See Titles of books. 
LL.D., 492. 

Logical grouping of sentences, 261. 
Loose and lose, 90, 649. 
ly, adverbs in, 70-72, 627, 628. 
Lying, 67, 624. 

Macaulay, essay on, p. 223. 

Man overboard, story of, 684. 

Manuscript, 1-51, 601-606. 

Margin, top, 23; left, 24; right, 25. 

Marriage, spelling of, 66, 623. 

Melodrama, essay on, p. 246. 

Men's, 485. 

Military drill, essay on, p. 213. 

Military officer, essay on, p. 264. 

Milton, quotations from, 605, 606. 

Mirth denoted by exclamation mark, 
528. 

Mistaken junction, 253, 299, 700. 

Mistaken non-junction, 316., 

Money, sums of, 153-160. 

Months, names of, 184, 679. 

Moreover, "solid," 129, 675; end punc- 
tuation with, 248, 279, 280, 694, 
695; interior punctuation with, 
when introductory, 394-398; 



when concluding, 399; when inter- 
polated, 400, 401. 

Motor car, essay on, p. 260. 

MS., 143 g. 

n, final, before ness, 69, 626: doubled. 
613. 

N.B., 144. 

Namely, 386-389, 714. 

Narration, paragraphing of, 590. 

ness, words in, 69, 626. 

Nevertheless, "solid," 129, 675; end 
punctuation with, 248, 279, 280, 
691; interior punctuation with, 
when introductory, 394-398; 
when concluding, 399; when in- 
terpolated, 400, 401. 

Newspapers, essay on, p. 374; names of, 
italicized, 217-222. 

Nicknames, 510-514. 

No., abbreviation, 143, 143 &. 

No, used as virtual predication, 244, 
438, 258, 697; expletive, 437. 

No one and nobody, 126, 132, 673. 

Non-restrictive. See Restrictive. 

North, south, etc., when capitalized, 
197, 681. 

Noticeable, 62, 617. 

Now, expletive, 439. 

Numbers, figures or words for, 149-167, 
677; parenthetic repetition of, 
168, 169; series of , represented by 
terminals, 170-172; hyphen with, 
136-139, 677; fractional, 139; 
plurals of, 489; improper enclos- 
ure of, in quotation marks, 533 c; 
in parentheses, 534 d; Roman, 9- 
12. 

Numerals. See Numbers. 

O, interjection, 91, 92. 

o, plurals of words in, 75. 

Occasionally, 71, 628. 

Occurrence, 98. 

O'clock, 494. 

Oh, 91, 92. 

On the contrary, end punctuation with, 

283-285; interior punctuation 

with, 402-407. 
On the other hand, other hand not " solid," 

131; end punctuation with, 283- 

285; interior, 402-407. 
One in any one etc., 132, 673. 
One's, ones', 488. 
Or with synonym, 325. 
Ordinal numbers, hyphen with, 138, 

677; figures or words for, 149- 

167. 
Oshkosh landlady, p. 269. 
Otherwise, "solid," 129, 675; end punc- 
tuation with, 248, 279, 280, 693; 

interior, 394-401. 



394 



GENERAL INDEX 



Ours, 486, 744. 
ous, adjectives in, 79, 633. 
Outlines for compositions, 536 ff., 551, 
563, 572, 583, 750, 751. 

p, final, doubled, 611. 

P., abbreviation, and pp., 145, 492. 

P.M., 143, 143 J. 

P.S., 144. 

Page numbers, 21, 149. 

Pages of MS., 21-25; arranged in nu- 
merical order, 51a. 

Paragraph sign, ■[, 49. 

Paragraphed clauses, capitalized, 214. 

Paragraphing, changes in, 4875O. 

Paragraphs, mechanical directions con- 
cerning, 26-33, 601; division of 
compositions into, 537-590, 750- 
753. 

Parentheses. See p. 387. 

Parenthetic elements, defined, 392, 
343, 345; punctuation with, 
392-447, 279, 280, 283-286, 
289, 291. 

Parenthetic phrases, 402 ff., 283-285. 

Parenthetic predications, 414-428, 
286, 289, 291. 

Participial phrases, introductory, 333; 
restrictive and non-restrictive, 337, 
709; period fault with, 465. 

Passed and past, 650. 

Pause, 526. 

Period. See p. 385. Exercises, 683- 
680, 734-737, 745, 747, 748, 753. 

Period fault 463-467, pp. x-xiv, 719, 
720, 683. 

Phrases, adjective, preceding principal, 
333; following, restrictive and non- 
restrictive, 338, 709, 710; ad- 
verbial, introductory, 347-356; 
concluding, 357-366; interpo- 
lated, 367-370, 701; interpolated 
miscellaneous, 300-303, 701; in- 
finitive, 352; gerund, 351; paren- 
thetic, see ante; participial, see 
ante. 

Picnicked etc., 60, 614. 

Pinkerton, autobiography of, p. 268. 

Pleasure of winter, essay on. p. 267. 

Plurals of nouns in y, 64. 73 b, 620, 629; 
of nouns in /, 74, 630; of nouns in 
o, 75; in s and es, 73, 629; of 
proper nouns, 76; formed with 
apostrophe, 489, 490. 

Poetry, 34-37, 602-606. 

Possess, spelling of, 98. 

Possessive adjectives, ours etc., 486, 
744; its, 487, 743. 

Possessive case, singular, 482, 739, 
742; of Dickens etc., 483, 741, 
742; plural in s', 484, 740; in 's, 
485; of one, 488. 



Postal card habit, newspaper item on, 

p. 236. 
Pp., abbreviation, 145, 492. 
Precede, spelling of, 94, 652; meaning, 

95, 653. 
Predications, 235-244. 
Present third singulars in ies, 65, 621 ; 

in s and es, 7 7, 631; of verbs in le, 

80, 634. 
Principal and principle, 93, 651. 
Proceed, spelling of, 94, 652; meaning, 

95, 653. 
Professor etc., spelling of, 663. 
Professor Collins, story about, 753. 
Proper names, capitalized, 184-191, 

679, 681; not to be quoted, 533 6; 

plurals of, 76. 
Proverbial phrases not to be quoted, 

533 e. 
Provisional subject, 382. 
Punctuation, 229 ff., 683 ff. See the 

special index on pp. 385 ff. 
Pure adverbs, 343, 344. 
Pure conjunctions, 237. 

Q.v., 143 c. 

Quarter, hyphen with, 106, 139. 

Queen Elizabeth, essay on, pp. 215 ff. 

Question, with clause introduced by 
whether, how, who, etc., in apposi- 
tion, 382. 

Question mark. See p. 385. Exercise 
concerning, 749. 

Questions, direct, 287-289; paren- 
thetic or appended, 289, 419, 
420; indirect, 288; declarative 
in form, 287; grouped, and not 
capitalized, 208; asked with 
eagerness, 529, 530. 

Quiet and quite, 654. 

Quotation marks. See p. 388. Exer- 
cises, 745, 749, 753. 

Quotations. See Direct quotations and 
Indirect quotations. 

r. final, doubled, 610. 

Rabbits, essay on, p. 249. 

Race and language, words of, to be 
capitalized, 198, 680. 

Railway legislation, essay on, p. 222. 

Receive, 96, 655. 

Reconstruction of a composition, 562, 
583. 

Relative clauses, restrictive and non- 
restrictive, 251, 252, 334-336, 
342, 707, 708; comma after inter- 
polated non-restrictive, 342, 707, 
708; parenthetic / think, etc. in, 
417; superfluous commas within, 
453; introduced by what, super- 
fluous commas before 456, within, 
457. 



GENERAL INDEX 



395 



Relevant, irrelevant parts made, 556- 
558. 

Representation of numbers. See Num- 
bers. 

Restrictive and non-restrictive, defined, 
252, 334; elements in general, 

335, 342; relative clauses, 251, 

336, 707, 708; participial phrases, 

337, 700; adjective phrases, 338, 
709; concluding adverbial phrases 
and clauses, 358-366; apposi- 
tives, 381, 382; such as expres- 
sions, 339-341, 710; especially 
expressions, 360-362 ; because 
clauses, 363. 

Rhetorical appositives, 383-385. 
Rhetorical effects, punctuation used 

for, 510-532. 
Rhetorical emendation, 307-311. 
Rolling a manuscript, 51. 
Roman numbers, formation of, 9-13; 

not to be used for folios, 21. 
Round, no apostrophe with, 495. 

s, nouns in, plural of, 483, 741. 

s and es, plurals in, 73, 629; present 
third singulars in, 77, 631. 

Said he interpolated, 472-479, 745- 
- 748. 

Salutations of letters, 434; of speeches, 
435; virtual predications, 244. 

Scanty and scrappy paragraphs, 571 ff. 

Scissors, essay on, p. 208. 

Seasons, names of, not capitalized, 185. 

Self, plural of, 74, 630; words in, 
"solid," 126, 669; not preceded 
by comma, 461. 

Semicolon. See p. 385. Exercises, 668- 
688, 746. m 

Sentence, p. xi. 

Sentence-structure, exercises in, 723- 
733. 

Separate words not to be compounded, 
130-135, 137, 139, 673, 674. 

Separative punctuation, 231, 233 ff., 
683 ff.; working system of, 247- 
255. 

Series, of adjectives, 305, 306; of 
coordinate elements without con- 
junctions, 312-315; with one 
conjunction, 327-332; superflu- 
ous points before, 462 ; after, 306, 
329; summed up by syntactic 
substitute, 449, 450; of numbers, 
represented by terminals, 170- 
172. 

Shellacked 60, 614. 

Shelley, quotation from, 603. 

Ships, names of, italicized, 223. 

Slang, quotation marks with, 510-514; 
essay on, p. 239. 

So, hyphen with, 114, 115; end punc- 



tuation with, 279, 280, 689; 
omission of end punctuation with, 
682; interior punctuation with, 
394, 396. 

So that and so as to, misuse of semicolon 
before, 281. 

"Solid" words, 125-129, 669-672. 

Some one, not "solid," 132, 673. 

Some time and sometime, 134, 667. 

Somebody, "solid," 126, 132, 673. 

Sometime and some time, 134, 667. 

South, north, etc., when capitalized, 
197, 681. 

Space in MS., between consecutive 
words and points, 16-18; between 
lines, 19, 20; above and below 
heading, 22; at top, 23; at left, 
23; above and below quoted 
verse, 37; prose, 38; tables, 40. 

Spelling, 52-101, 607-664; list of 
words often misspelled, 101. 

Sq., sqq., 145. 

State, capitalizing of, 189. 

Statement with that clause in apposition, 
382. 

Steel mill, essay on, 570. 

Still, end punctuation with, 248, 279, 
280, 691; interior punctuation 
with, 394-401. 

Streets, numbers designating, spelled 
out, 152, 681; capitalized, 191, 
200, 681. 

Stringy compound sentences, 260. 

Structure of compositions, 551, 562, 
572, 583, 536; of sentences, 723- 
733. 

Studying 68, 625. 

Subordinate clauses. See Dependent 
clauses. 

Subordinate elements, 333 ff. 

Subordination to secure unity, 557. 

Substantive clauses, in apposition to 
fact, statement, question, etc., 382 <*>, 
to provisional subject it, 382 &; 
used as object of verb, says, thinks, 
etc., 454 a, 455 a; as adverbial 
modifier of sorry, surprised, etc., 
454 &, 455 &; with conjunction that 
omitted, 455. % 

Substitute, syntactic, 449, 450. 

Such as, 339-341, 710. 

Suffixes, effects of, 52-72, 607-628. 

Sums of money, 153-160, 677. 

Superfluous commas. See p. 387. Ex- 
ercises, 717, 718. 

Superfluous punctuation, 452-462. 

Swinburne quoted, 604. 

Syllabication, 173-183, 678. 

Syntactic substitute, 449, 450. 

Syntax, pp. xii, 277. 

T, cross-stroke of, 5-7. 



396 



GENERAL INDEX 



t, final, doubled, 612. 

Tabulation, 39, 40. 

Technical terms, quoted, 508, 509. 

Terminology of grammar, 234. 

Than and then, 656. 

That, superfluous comma before, 382, 
454, 458; after, 459. 

That is, end punctuation with, 283- 
285, 737; introducing appositive, 
390, 386-388, 737. 

The in titles, 221, 222. 

Thefts in dormitory, essay on, p. 233. 

Their and there, 657. 

Theirs, 486, 743. 

Then, end punctuation with, 279, 280, 
692; interior, when used as pure 
adverb, 343, 344; as conjunctive 
adverb, 394-401. 

Then and than, 656. 

There and their, 657. 

Therefore, spelling of, 101; end punc- 
tuation with, 279, 280, 690; in- 
terior punctuation with, when used 
as pure adverb, 343, 344; when 
used as conjunctive adverb, in- 
troductory, 394-398; conclud- 
ing, 399; interpolated, 400, 401. 

Thought-components, 536, 750, 751. 

Thus, end punctuation with, 279, 280, 
694, 695; interior, 394-398. 

Till, no apostrophe with, 495. 

Time expressions, punctuation with, 
446, 447, 716. 

Time of day, to be spelled out, 162; 
ten-thirty etc., 163; a.m. and p.m., 
143 J. 

Title of a composition, position of, on 
page, 22 ; not to be quoted, 533 a; 
changed, when composition-struc- 
ture is changed, 576. 

Titles of books, italicized, 217-222; 
capitalized, 202; not parenthe- 
sized, 534 c; accurate citation of, 
220; exercise in writing, 682. 

Titles of persons, when capitalized, 
193-196, 200, 201, 681; abbre- 
viation of, 146-148. 

To, too, two, 97, 658, 659. 

To tell the truth, end punctuation with, 
283-285; interior, 402-407. 

To-day, hyphened, 122. 

Together, spelling of, 101; "solid," 
129, 671. 

To-morrow, 122. 

To-night, 122. 

Too, 97, 658, 659. 

Topic of a paragraph, 550 ff. 

Trafficked etc., 60, 614. 

Transitional paragraphs, 545. 

Transposition of material in a compo- 



sition, 559-561, 580, 582; in 

MS., 47. 
Two, to, too, 97, 658, 659. 

Unity of paragraphs, 538 ff. 
University of Chicago, open letter on, 

p. 228. 
Unnecessary punctuation, 452-462 

717, 718. See also p. 387. 

v, final / changed to, 74, 630. 
Vaudeville, essay on, p. 245. 
Verse, 34-37, 602-606. 
ves, plurals in, 74, 630. 
Vice president, 104. 
Virtual predications, 244, 697. 
Viz., meaning and use of, 143 d; punc- 
tuation with, 386-389, 714. 
Vocabulary, essay on enlarging, 751 C. 
Vocatives, 429-435, 715. 
Vol., abbreviation, 145. 

Watch factory, essay on, p. 252. 
Well, hyphen with, 114, 115; exple- 
tive, punctuation with, 439. 
West, east, etc., when capitalized, 197, 

681. 
What clauses, superfluous commas 

before, 456, 382; within, 457. 
Whether, superfluous commas before, 

454, 382. 
Which, superfluous commas before, 

454, 382; after, 453. 
Who, superfluous commas before, 454, 

382. 
Why, expletive, 439. 
Winter, farm life in, p. 283. 
Winter, pleasures of, p. 269. 
Woman and women, 660. 
Woman suffrage, essay on, p. 282. 
Wonder, denoted by exclamation mark, 

528. 
Word breaking, 173-183, 678. 
Words discussed, italicized, 224; not 

parenthesized, 534 b; plurals of, 

489. 
Working system of punctuation, 247- 

255. 
Writing (chirography),. 4-20. 
Writing materials, 1, 2. 

x, cross-stroke of, 5. 

y, final. See Final y. 

Years, numbers designating, 149: 
punctuation with, 446, 447, 716 - 
of age, 161. 

Yes, expletive, 437: virtual predica- 
tion, 244, 258, 438, 697. 

Yours, 486, 743. 



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